When it comes to analyzing a literary work, here is what you need to know: the basic historical context of the piece; the reason the piece is considered great or important; and what the piece is, ultimately, about (what’s its point?). After that, you’ll want to look at the literary devices in the work and understand how they add to its meaning, beauty and effectiveness. This sounds like a lot of work, but don’t be a martyr: for context, and to get through more difficult works, I highly recommend Cliffs Notes, SparkNotes . . . and skimming.
Bonus points: Understand the difference between good and great literature (one is well-written and entertaining while the other is these, plus important and universal in some way) and don’t confuse a work’s true meaning with the meaning that the author intended (the authorial intent). Great literature, it is said, is a mystical creature with a life independent of its creator.
A few additional notes on poetry interpretation: Though any great literary work can abide line by line analysis, due to its shorter length, poetry is particularly amenable to it. At least once in your life, choose a poem you like and study its use of some of the literary devices below as well as its use of repetition, rhyme, rhythm, cadence and, most importantly, diction (both the connotations and the denotations of each word). Think about how each of these elements furthers the meaning of the poem. Ask yourself how these elements add to the meaning of the piece. You might be surprised how much there is to say about those few lovely stanzas.
Most people should probably know most of the terms below; it just makes for better conversation about books. Play with literary analysis by choosing one or two favorite works and identifying some or most of the following literary devices in them. This will help you appreciate their beauty in a way you haven’t before.
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE: LITERARY ANALYSIS
Subject: The objective main topic of a literary work. An example is Tom Sawyer’s adventures in the book The Adventures of Tom Sawyer.
Theme: The subjective, philosophical idea that is explored in a work. An example is the theme of boyhood in the book The Adventures of Tom Sawyer.
Narrative: A work’s story line
Premise: A work’s basic setup, which might include its setting and the question or problem faced by its main character. An example is the premise of George Orwell’s novel 1984, in which the main character’s desire for freedom is thwarted by a totalitarian government.
Plot: The events of a story
Subplot: An additional plot interwoven with the main plot
Conflict: A struggle or challenge that affects the story line
Setting: The time, place, and conditions in which a work’s action takes place; a work’s context
Point of view: The perspective from which the story or piece is told. It can be first person; second person; third-person objective; third-person limited omniscient; or third-person omniscient.
First person point of view: The narrative perspective in which the narrator speaks as themselves, using “I,” “me,” and “we”
Second person point of view: The narrative perspective in which the story is told directly to the reader using “you” and “your”
Third-person objective point of view: The narrative perspective in which the narrator remains an observer and does not reveal the internal thoughts or feelings of the characters. They use pronouns like “she,” “he,” “they,” and “them.”
Third-person limited omniscient point of view: The narrative perspective in which the narrator reveals the thoughts and feelings of one or a few characters, usually the main character. They use pronouns like “she,” “he,” “they,” and “them.”
Third-person omniscient point of view: The narrative perspective in which the narrator shows complete knowledge of all the characters in the story, including their thoughts and motivations. They use pronouns like “she,” “he,” “they,” and “them.”
Dramatic structure: The traditional five-part format many or most stories follow. It includes an inciting incident in which the protagonist must make a choice of some kind, rising action, a climax, falling action, and the resolution (also called a dénouement).
Climax: The peak moment of the action, occurring at or near the end of the work. It is often the turning point for the protagonist.
Dénouement: The final resolution of the story
Characterization: Writing that brings a character to life and makes them unique
Protagonist: The story’s main character
Tragic hero/tragic figure: A protagonist whose story comes to an unhappy end due to his or her own behavior and character flaws
Antihero: A protagonist who isn’t all good and may even be bad
Antagonist: The story’s main bad guy
Round character: A character that is complex and realistic
Flat character: An uncomplicated character that doesn’t feel real to the reader
Foil: A character who provides a clear contrast to another character
Soliloquy: A monologue by a character in a play
Genre: A work’s category based on its content and form. Some examples are mystery, science fiction, romance and historical fiction.
Fiction: Imagined, untrue literature
Nonfiction: Factual literature
Biography: A nonfiction life story written by someone other than the subject
Autobiography: A nonfiction life story written by the subject
Memoir: A nonfiction story written by the subject about his or her own experiences, but not about his or her entire life
Anthology: A collection of short stories written by various authors, compiled in one book or journal
Myth: A story that attempts to explain events in nature by referring to supernatural causes, like gods and deities
Fable: A story intended to depict a useful truth or moral lesson and that frequently involves animals that speak and act like human beings
Tale: A story about imaginary or exaggerated events that the narrator pretends is true
Parable: A short story that teaches a moral or spiritual lesson
Parody: A humorous imitation of a popular work
Satire: A humorous work that makes fun of another work or anything else, revealing its weakness
Exposition: Explanatory writing
Didactic writing: Instructional writing
Freewriting: Writing continuously without much thought in order to discover hidden ideas or feelings
Diction: Word choice
Denotation: The dictionary meaning of a word
Connotation: A word’s unspoken implication(s)
Jargon: Terms only familiar to those in the know
Syntax: The ways words are organized in sentences and paragraphs
Pace: The speed and rhythm of a work, which is conveyed through sentence length, plot movement and more
Style: The distinctive way an author writes, which includes their diction, voice, tone, mood, pace, favored themes and more
Tone: The attitude or mood of the author or narrator toward the work. Some examples are formal, conversational, humorous and nostalgic.
Voice: The distinctive personality or perspective of the author, including the author’s ideas and beliefs. A magazine can have many voices, but maintain a single tone throughout.
Mood: The overall feeling of the piece. Some examples are dark, brooding and fanciful.
Literary convention: A commonly used feature, style, idea or technique in literature. Some examples are: a hero’s journey; a three-act structure; and a sidekick character.
Literary device: A writing tool that helps convey ideas and meaning or adds interest to a work. Some examples are imagery, foreshadowing and personification.
Figurative language: Language that implies or represents an idea rather than directly stating it, often for mood, dramatic effect, or humor. Some examples are hyperbole, understatement, imagery, similes and metaphors.
Simile: A figure of speech in which two things are compared using the words like or as
Metaphor: A figure of speech in which something is said to be something else, without using the words like or as. An example is Shakespeare’s line, “All the world’s a stage.”
Synecdoche: A figure of speech in which a part stands in for the whole or a whole stands in for a part. Some examples are: using the word boards in place of the word stage and saying “the Americans” instead of “the American team.”
Metonymy: A figure of speech in which a related concept is substituted for the whole. An example is saying “the White House” in place of “the President.”
Analogy: A comparison that goes into some detail
Imagery: A mental picture or representation of a person, place, or thing
Symbol: Something that appears in a piece of writing that stands for or suggests something else. An example is the red letter A worn by the main character in The Scarlet Letter.
Motif: A recurring idea, symbol or set of symbols in a work that contribute to the work’s theme(s). An example is the house in Gone With the Wind, which is named Tara.
Alliteration: The repetition of initial sounds in closely-placed words. An example is: “Sally sells seashells by the seashore.”
Assonance: The repetition of vowel sounds in closely-placed words. An example is: “The rain in Spain stays mainly in the plain.”
Pun: A play on words that relies on a word’s having more than one meaning or sounding like another word. An example is: “A boiled egg for lunch is hard to beat.”
Cliché: An overused expression. An example is: “Actions speak louder than words.”
Double entendre: A phrase that can be interpreted in two different ways. An example is: “That’s what she said.”
Euphemism: An innocuous-sounding phrase used in place of something distasteful or offensive. An example is the use of the word passing in place of the word death.
Irony: A figure of speech that occurs when reality is the opposite of one’s reasonable expectation. An example is: “I was hired to write books but instead, I am burning them.”
Oxymoron: A phrase composed of two words with contradictory meanings. An example is “open secret.”
Paradox: A statement that initially appears to be contradictory but then, on closer inspection, turns out to make sense. An example is: “The first shall be last and the last shall be first.”
Allusion: A reference that is not directly stated or explained. An example is using the phrase “to be or not to be” without mentioning Hamlet or Shakespeare.
Foreshadowing: Hints of upcoming events in a work, often included to build suspense. An example is: “She didn’t know what she was getting herself into.”
Personification: The attributing of human characteristics to something that is not human. An example is: “My computer hates me.”
Onomatopoeia: A word or words that imitate a sound. Some examples are bang and pop.
Editorial: A short article expressing an opinion or point of view. Often, but not always, written by a member of the publication staff.
Serial: A series of related works or a regularly published work, as a newsletter or magazine
Synopsis: A brief summary of a story, manuscript, or book
Rough draft: The first organized version of a document or other work
Hook: A starting sentence or idea that grabs the reader’s attention. In an essay, the hook might be a statistic or a paraphrased idea presented by an expert. In an article, the hook is usually the main idea.
Boilerplate: A piece of writing that gets reused frequently, sometimes with minor changes
Canon: Works generally considered by scholars to be the most important of a genre
Byline: The author’s name appearing with his/her published work
Pseudonym: A “pen name”
Public domain work: Any written material not under copyright
Query: A short letter pitching an article or a book idea to an editor or agent
Side bar: Extra information put alongside, but not in, the main article
Slant: The bias or angle in a piece of writing
Unsolicited manuscript: A manuscript that an agent or editor has not asked to see
Thesis statement: The part of an essay that clearly states the essay’s main point. It might also briefly mention several of the relevant supporting points. It is usually either one or two sentences in length (most commonly one).
Three-prong thesis statement: A thesis statement that offers three supporting points and is usually only one sentence long; for example, “I love rabbits because they are fast, soft and beautiful.” This is a simple way to go, if your ideas allow for it.
Five-paragraph essay: A simple essay format that includes one introduction paragraph, three body paragraphs and one concluding paragraph. The three body paragraphs present three supporting points for the thesis (which is usually a three-prong thesis).
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE: POETRY
Stanza: A group of lines in a poem that form a metrical or thematic unit and that are set off by a space
Verse: Poetic lines composed in a measured rhythmical pattern, that are often, but not necessarily, rhymed
Beat: A one-count syllable or pause in speech, action, or poetry
Stress: An emphasis given to a particular syllable in word pronunciation or in poetry reading
Meter: A recurring rhythmic pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in a poem
Rhythm: A term used to refer to the recurrence of stressed and unstressed sounds in poetry
Couplet: A group of two rhyming lines
Triplet: A group of three rhyming lines
Quatrain: A four-line stanza and the most common stanzaic form in the English language
Iambic pentameter: A metrical pattern commonly used in English poetry in which each line has five metrical feet, with each foot containing two syllables. The first syllable of each foot is stressed and the second syllable is unstressed.
Epic: A long narrative poem told in a formal, elevated style with a serious subject
Lyric: A brief poem that expresses the personal emotions and thoughts of a single speaker, not necessarily of the poet
Sonnet: A poem that consists of fourteen lines, usually written in iambic pentameter, with a varied rhyme scheme
Acrostic: A sentence or poem in which the first letters of each word of the sentence stand for a different word or idea. An example is “Lighthearted Overwhelming Virtuous Eve: LOVE.”
Villanelle: A poem consisting of nineteen lines of any length divided into six stanzas
Ode: A dignified poem written to praise someone or something
Free verse: A poem that is free of rules and formal structure
Limerick: A lighthearted rhyming poem with a particular structure
Ballad: A narrative folksong-like poem
Haiku: A traditional Japanese poem consisting of three lines, with the first line having five syllables, the second line having seven syllables, and the third line having five syllables
Elegy: A poem expressing grief and loss
Epigram: A concise, clever statement; a witty quote
Epitaph: A brief poem sometimes written on a gravestone paying tribute to a dead person or commemorating another loss
