Author Archives: Mollie Player

Computer science just isn’t a specialty anymore. Most companies create and/or manage several websites and computer programs, meaning that if you want to be successful in business, it’s helpful to understand these common terms.

How a computer works: When the computer is turned on, some of the microchips in the hard drive start the computer, then pass the control over to the boot loader. The boot loader initializes the hardware, loading the first sector of the hard drive to the memory. After this, it loads the operating system, the kernel, the computer settings and the shell. The shell presents the login screen to the user. After the user logs in, the operating system tells the driver to start talking to the hardware. After the user opens a program, the driver detects the clicks and talks to the kernel. The kernel then passes the information to the shell. The shell interprets it, then communicates it to the program. Finally, the program interprets it and the program is launched. The program loads the needed threads and processes into the RAM. Threads are run and interrupted on a regular basis according to how many time slices they’re allotted. The system clock tells the operating system when to stop each process, which is done after each time slice, no matter what. Each time this happens the OS checks to see if the program’s time is up or if it has more. It adjusts priorities and may switch to a different process. This activity is done in kernel mode, a mode in which the program isn’t allowed to control anything. After this, the operating system switches back to user mode and gives control back to the program. Computers running with multiple CPUs must share the kernel between them. Mistakes in this management can lead to crashes.

ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE: COMPUTER SCIENCE

Parts of a computer: Hard drive; memory storage; input/output unit; CPU; monitor; operating system (OS); software applications

Hardware: The physical components of a computer, such as the input/output unit and the monitor

Software: A set of instructions to be executed on a computer, usually with a particular use. These are also called applications or programs.

Hard drive: The physical place in the computer in which memory is located

Central processing unit (CPU): The place in the computer that loads instructions from memory, parses them, then executes them

The shell: The OS’s user interface; the part of the OS that the user sees and interacts with

Internal memory: Applications, programs and other data and instructions located within a computer, including ROM and RAM

External memory: Applications, programs and other data and instructions located on external hard drives, USB keys, etc.

Virtual memory: located in the internal memory but is made up of addresses that point elsewhere in the memory for the purposes of convenience and security.

RAM: fast copied temporary memory located on the hard drive disc or in microchips which is lost when the computer is shut down

ROM: long-term stored read-only memory, usually unalterable, containing system-level instructions

Operating system (OS): The software that runs all the basic operations of the computer; provides a secure, reliable environment for programs to run on; and grants programs access to inputs, outputs, memory, system software like drivers, and networking features. It also schedules processes when more than one application competes for time on the CPU. It contains a system clock; a file system; a user interfaced called the API that includes a set of calls or methods app programmers use to interact with the OS; and more.

Windows: The operating system Microsoft computers use

OSX: The operating system Apple computers use

Linux: A popular open-source operating system

Executable file (.exe): A file that talks to the operating system

The kernel: The part of a Windows computer that loads drivers, handles hardware, enforces security, enables network communication–anything the application needs permission to do, even just opening MS Office. (Accessing memory is not included in this.)

Service: A background process run by the OS. (Example: system clock, firewall, window update checks.)

Kernel mode: The mode an application goes into when it is accessing the computer’s kernel. A program can only go into kernel mode when allowed and only run the kernel code, not its own code at all.

User mode: App mode in which the OS can be accessed through an app can switch back and forth from kernel to user frequently.

Boot loader: The software program that the hard drive passes the control to right after starting the computer. It loads the fist sector of the hard drive to memory and passes control to it.

Native system services/executive system services: OS services that are callable from user mode

Kernel support functional routines: Subroutines inside the OS that are callable only from kernel mode

Computer architecture: The way the parts of a computer interact with each other, including which parts of the memory are able to communicate with which other parts and in which order. There are many different working computer architectures.

Virtual machine: A remotely located package of software that presents itself to the local machine as a complete separate machine. Virtual machines are highly convenient for purposes of testing code, working on a networked machine with network privileges, and on other occasions when a second or different computer/operating system package is needed.

Database: An organized collection of data, usually stored electronically. If available on the Internet, it can be accessed through servers.

Cookie: A small text file with various fields that is stored in the web browser and/or on the client’s computers. Normally, it is used to manage a session (keeping a user logged in across multiple pages, etc.).

Session: All of the applications running on a single user ID between login and logout

Programming language: A set of standardized rules for coding that results in functional source code. There are many programming languages, including C# and C++.

Source code: The human-readable instructions that make up a software program, which are written in a standard programming language

Script: A language that is Internet-appropriate, like JavaScript

Binary code: A language made up entirely of 0s and 1s, which are the only units a computer can directly work with (execute on its CPU). These true/false or 1/0 binary choices are also called boolean expressions. All other programming languages are made into source code, then finally parsed (interpreted by the computer) as binary code by a compiler. This is also called machine language or machine code.

Bit: The basic unit of information in computing, expressed as either a 0 or a 1

Byte: A unit of 8 bits

Kilobyte: A unit of 1,024 bytes

Megabyte: A unit of 1,024 kilobytes

Gigabyte: A unit of 1,024 megabytes

Terabyte: A unit of 1,024 gigabytes

Command: A computer instruction. Many put together make up an algorithm.

Algorithm: A complex logic-based instruction set that plays a specific role in a computer program

Computer code: The set of instructions forming a computer program that is read and carried out by a computer, which is used in turn to make up computer programs

Procedure: A reusable block of code that performs a specific task in a program. It might be part of an object in object-oriented programming and is also called a function or a subroutine.

Thread: A single sequence of instructions that can be executed independently within a program and that together make up processes, which together make up programs

Multi-threading: Running more than one process simultaneously in the same program using a single CPU, which schedules these processes to occur successively but seamlessly

Object-oriented programming: A way of designing software by making reusable data objects (files, data units, independent procedures or a procedure/data object that perform a particular function) that interact with one another

Pointer: An object that contains the address of each piece of memory

The leap section: The place in memory that stores dynamically allocated variables needed by a program

The stack section: The place in memory that store info in stacks, with the lowest addresses (oldest) on bottom, like cafeteria trays

Buffer: A place in memory that receives and holds data until it can be handled by requested processes. Each process can have its own set of buffers. Each buffer has a predetermined length and data type

Bug: Any kind of error in a software program. It may cause a program to unexpectedly quit, to be vulnerable to attack, or to work improperly.

Debugging: The process of removing computer program bugs

Testing: Reviewing programs to find bugs and other problems

Crash dump: A record of a program’s slate system memory at the time of a crash. It can be analyzed to figure out why it occurred.

Deadlock: A conflict of needs and allocations that stops all computing

Network: A group of computers that talk to each other and share resources through one or more shared computers called servers

Virtual private network (VPN): A type of computer network that allows users to connect to remotely

Local area network (LAN): A type of computer network that is smaller than a wide area network and that includes WiFi and ethernet

Wide area network (WAN): A type of computer network that is larger than a local area network and that includes the Internet

Server: A computer that provides information to other computers or allows other computers to connect to each other, usually remotely over the Internet or in a smaller computer network.

Clients: The individual computers that the server talks to. Some computers have both a client side and a server side.

Proxy server: A backup server used on corporate networks to protect against web attacks

Domain controller: The main server in a group of servers

Administrator: The manager of a domain (or any group of users)

Internet: The global collection of computer networks and their connections, all using shared protocols to communicate

Internet 2: A second, higher-speed Internet that is used to send very large files, such as research data between universities

Protocol: Rules to standardize processes in networks. They are used on both the sending and the receiving ends of the communication.

HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): The set of rules for transferring files (text, graphic images, sound, video, and other multimedia files) on the Internet.

HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure): HTTP, but with encryption

Uniform Resource Locator (URL): An internet address that is used by the browser to look up the IP address of the server and the server’s name so that it can talk to that server and retrieve the page’s HTML

Packet: A small chunk of information that has been carefully formed from larger chunks of information in order to more efficiently communicate over a network. If not encrypted, they are vulnerable to capture. They might be distributed over multiple routers according to which is currently available.

Router: A machine that captures and sends on data packets. Most internet communications require many routers along the way.

Switch: A smart hub/router that connects network segments, thereby routing packets more efficiently

Modem: A router used on a small scale, as between private homes or small networks

Bandwidth: The maximum rate of data transfer across a given path

Cyber security: Practices that mitigate internet exploits, including Web development and application development practices

Computer vulnerability: A mistake or oversight in computer code that exposes the program to attack

Computer exploit: An attack on a local computer or many local computers that either damages it or allows the attacker to make use of it in any way without permission. The three most common types are exploitation of browser vulnerabilities, exploitation of email application vulnerabilities, and social engineering exploits.

Firewall: A network device used to prevent unauthorized incoming traffic. It is usually located between a private network and a link to the internet.

Social engineering: Gaining compromising information by exploiting human vulnerabilities, such as tricking people into sharing sensitive information

Encryption: The process of converting plaintext or readable data into an encoded form called ciphertext, which is not easily understandable without the decryption key. It is a security technique used to protect sensitive information from unauthorized access or interception, ensuring confidentiality and data integrity.

Cryptography: The process of encrypting plain text messages that are then sent and unencrypted on the receiving end with the use of a text key

Piracy: The illegal copying, distribution, or use of software

Direct memory access: Writing directly to RAM without going through the hard drive, as when a network file system is doing a transfer, over the internet

Active directory: A directory service that contains a database that stores security info about objects in a domain, inc users, computers, security IDs, etc.

Hacking: Using a computer to gain unauthorized access to data. The term is also sometimes used for creative problem-solving in coding.

Black hat hacking: The unauthorized and malicious activities carried out by individuals or groups with the intent to exploit computer systems, networks, or software for personal gain, disruption, or other harmful purposes

White hat hacking: Ethical hacking or penetration testing, involves authorized and legal activities performed by cybersecurity professionals to identify vulnerabilities and weaknesses in computer systems, networks, or applications

You probably already have most of the skills on this list, at least to some degree. Treat this checklist, then, as a gentle reminder not to pass by the couple of things you haven’t quite nailed yet.

Note that this list does not include skills mentioned in other sections of this book or those generally possessed by people under the age of six, such as memorizing one’s address and phone number. My attempts at comprehensiveness, though well-meaning, are usually futile.

ESSENTIAL SKILLS: LIFE MANAGEMENT

• Managing time and tasks, including: creating short-term and long-term to-do lists; time-on-task estimating; padding time-on-task estimations; and breaking large projects into small steps
• Keeping ongoing to-do lists and short-term goals lists, with steps to achieve those goals
• Listing and working towards long-term life goals, dreams and plans
• Managing money, including: budgeting, calculating interest, avoiding debt, calculating the highest affordable mortgage payment, saving for retirement, investing in the stock market, filing taxes and organizing financial records
• Cleaning the home, including: washing laundry; washing dishes; dusting; cleaning the bathroom and more
• Performing simple household maintenance tasks, including: changing lightbulbs; testing and changing smoke and carbon monoxide detectors; cleaning the roof and gutters; mowing the lawn; maintaining a yard; fixing leaky faucets and unclogging the toilet
• Cooking and baking, including: two soups or stews; two stir-fry sauces; muffins; cakes; roasted chicken; and grilled steak
• Organizing one’s living space
• Learning basic self-defense techniques
• Maintaining a car, including changing the oil, checking tire pressure, checking fluid levels and scheduling regular tire changes and other maintenance
• Applying basic first aid skills, including CPR
• Caring for children
• Using public transportation
• Sewing
• Writing formal letters and emails
• Typing
• Memorizing emergency procedures in various settings, including knowledge of using a fire extinguisher
• Maintaining good hygiene, nutrition and exercise habits
• Preventing disease, including STDs
• Using responsible and healthy sexual practices
• Visiting doctors and dentists regularly
• Purchasing a house
• Holding family meetings
• Maintaining safe and secure Internet practices, including an understanding of online source verification
• Choosing and purchasing insurance for home, health and car
• Gardening
• Recycling, reusing and caring for the environment
• Using the Microsoft Office suite and other important computer programs
• Interviewing for jobs and job shadowing
• Knowing federal and local laws
• Driving a car
• Avoiding addiction and understanding the effects of drugs and alcohol
• Registering to vote and choosing who and what to vote for
• Doing community service work
• Planning and budgeting for trips
• Planning and hosting parties
• Traveling locally and globally, if possible
• Using basic tools, including: hammers, screwdrivers, power drills, hand-held sanders, knives, pliers, wedges and wrenches
• Doing home improvement projects: painting, building simple furniture items, installing hardware and more
• Building a fire
• Using a directional compass
• Making a water filter with sand, rocks, clay and charcoal
• Listening to educational podcasts and audiobooks
• Memorizing important poems and passages
• Writing longhand letters to friends
• Making a family tree
• Starting a small business
• Holding a garage sale

How to register to vote: In the U.S., legal residents over the age of 18 can vote. Register online, at a state or local election office or at the department of motor vehicles. Update your voter registration if you change addresses.

Other ways to get involved in politics: Serving as a poll worker, donating to candidates, running for local office, joining a citizen advisory board, creating a petition, writing about and discussing your issue or candidate of choice. Note that it is more effective to send letters to state officials than to DC. Calling is more effective than writing letters, and in-person visits are best of all.

ESSENTIAL INTERPERSONAL SKILLS

• Making friends
• Cultivating healthy relationships
• Communicating effectively, including: listening actively; restating the other person’s message; and calmly resolving conflict
• Avoiding and de-escalating conflict
• Using good eye contact
• Using good manners
• Shaking hands firmly
• Projecting vocally when appropriate
• Saying “no” without further explanation
• Enforcing healthy boundaries and respecting the boundaries of others
• Asking questions
• Talking to strangers
• Making casual conversation/small talk
• Crafting a convincing and logical argument
• Speaking in public
• Telling a joke
• Forgiving and apologizing first
• Accepting and learning from other cultures, family types and gender identities
• Responding to anger or unkindness without defensiveness, but instead with simple statements of fact (such as “I don’t agree” or “That’s interesting,”) questions (such as “Why did you do that?”) or kindnesses (such as, “Are you okay?”)
• Using simple consequences instead of physical force or emotional abuse (for example, “If you do that, I am not going to play with you right now,” or, “If you are rough with my toys, I will take them away”)

ESSENTIAL SELF-CARE SKILLS

• Spending time alone
• Engaging in long-term projects and hobbies
• Labeling emotions
• Separating fact from emotion
• Using self-calming strategies like deep breathing
• Doing self-guided cognitive therapy/reframing (writing down upsetting irrational thoughts and replacing them with rational ones)
• Journaling about difficult memories and moments, then rewriting the story in a way that is healthy, helpful and self-compassionate
• Maintaining healthy exercise and nutrition habits
• Maintaining spiritual/grounding practices such as meditation (observing one’s own mind with nonjudgmental acceptance) and mindfulness (observing the present moment with nonjudgmental acceptance)

ESSENTIAL SKILLS: PERSONAL QUALITIES TO DEVELOP

• Love
• Generosity
• Healthy attachment
• Respect for differences
• Confidence
• Dignity
• Honesty
• Humility
• Morality
• Loyalty/commitment
• Hope, optimism and positivity
• Personal responsibility
• Willingness to work hard
• Acceptance of hardship
• Toughness and survivalism
• Independence
• Creativity/imagination
• A sense of personal identity/uniqueness
• Purpose
• Cultivation of one’s best self

Ideas for enjoyable, educational activities aren’t hard to find. The trick is to remember them when the time comes. Here is a list to draw from on those quiet days when you want to spend time with friends or family while also furthering your knowledge base.

ESSENTIAL RESOURCES: EDUCATIONAL GAMES AND OTHER RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES

Educational Games

• Scrabble
• Chess
• Checkers
• Go
• Mah jong
• Monopoly
• Trivial Pursuit
• Dominos
• Card games
• Charades
• Crossword puzzles
• Sudoku
• Logic grid puzzles
• Mazes
• Map puzzles
• Complex strategy board games like Dungeons and Dragons, Magic or Settlers of Cattan
• Billiards/pool

Other Educational Recreational Activities

• Show and tell
• Talent shows
• Art museums and galleries
• Zoos
• Aquariums
• Science museums
• History museums
• Planetariums
• Concerts
• Theater plays
• Sporting events
• Educational and recreational clubs (scouting clubs, book clubs, science clubs, gaming clubs and more)
• Travel, especially to historical locations

Additional Recommendations: Homemade Educational Games

If you want to make learning the material in this book more enjoyable–and a bit easier–consider trying one or two of the following self-made learning games. Homeschooling families might find them especially useful, as multiple players can reinforce concepts simultaneously.

THE LIST GAME

Number of Players: Any

What You Need: One printed copy of one of the sections of this book per player, paper and writing instruments

How to Play: First, players review their fact lists for several minutes. Then they set the lists aside and start a timer for five to ten minutes. During the timed session, players list as many terms as they can remember, along with their definitions. The winner is the one who writes the most correct terms and accompanying definitions.

BINGO

Number of Players: Three or more

What You Need: One printed copy of one of the sections of this book per player, paper and writing instruments

How to Play: First, players each create a 5×5 grid on their paper. Then, they fill in each box with one of the terms from their chosen fact list. One player volunteers to serve as the first caller and reads the definitions of the terms from the list in random order. The other players must guess the right term, then block it off their BINGO card if they have it. The first person to have five correctly named terms in a row is the winner. Players can take turns serving as the caller.

TWENTY QUESTIONS/WHO AM I?

Number of Players: Two or more

What You Need: One printed copy of one of the sections of this book per player, paper and writing instruments

How to Play: First, one player (or team) chooses five terms from the chosen fact list. Then, they start a timer and the other player (or team) attempts to guess the terms one by one by using yes or no questions only. Only five terms may be named while questioning. For example, a player can ask, “Is it an object?” any number of times, but “Is it [term from the fact list]?” only five times total. After the team uses all five of their guesses, the timer is stopped. That team’s correct number of guesses and the time spent finding them are noted, and the teams switch roles and play again. The winning player or team is the one that identified the most of the five terms, with the time taken to do so as the tie breaker.

DO-IT-YOURSELF CROSSWORD PUZZLES

What You Need: One printed copy of one of the sections of this book, grid paper with large boxes and a pencil

How to Play: First, determine which of the terms on the chosen fact list are hardest for you to remember. Starting with those terms, create a simple crossword puzzle on the grid paper. This can work with just five or six terms, or you can make a more complicated version. Number each term as is standard for crossword puzzles and list the corresponding numbered clues next to the puzzle. The clues, in this case, will be the definition of the term. Create multiple puzzles and print out multiple copies of each and fill out the puzzles later on. (Note that crosswords using foreign-language vocabulary words can be easiest to create, since the native-language word can be used as the clue.)

DO-IT-YOURSELF HISTORICAL TIMELINE

What You Need: Paper, markers and a list of important dates

How to Play: First, determine which key historical dates you most want to remember. The historical timeline provided in this book might be a good place to find these. Draw a straight line down the middle of each piece of paper and divide the line into equal segments. Write the date increments on each segment, then write the corresponding events. Hang it on a wall for easy reference. Later, create a second version that only lists the dates and try to fill in the corresponding events by memory.

DO-IT-YOURSELF MAP PUZZLES

What You Need: A high-quality map of the world, or of a country or continent; scissors; cardboard

How to Play: Cut a map into puzzle-like pieces (for best results, use simple angular shapes). Reinforce the back of each piece with cardboard, then put the puzzle together repeatedly until you are able to do so quickly.

DO-IT-YOURSELF DOT-TO-DOT DRAWINGS

What You Need: A high-quality picture of an important world landmark, body system, or other visual aide to learning; paper; a marker

How to Play: Place a piece of paper over the chosen picture. Outline the picture with dots in the proper places. Number the dots as you go. Then try to redraw the picture by connecting the dots.

EDUCATIONAL COLORING SHEETS

What You Need: Coloring sheets that depict educational visual aides like planets, the parts of a plant, the parts of a cell, human body systems, maps and much more; crayons, markers or colored pencils

How to Play: Color and label the educational coloring sheet, taking time to appreciate its details. Hang them on a wall to jog your memory.

Additional Recommendations: Pretend Play Scenario Ideas

• Camping
• Store (toy store, grocery store, pet store, etc.)
• Restaurant
• Post Office
• Theater/play/music performance
• Art gallery
• Zoo
• Animal hunt
• Fort building
• Pet hotel
• Tea party
• Hospital
• Cops and robbers
• Superheroes
• Pilots
• Vet clinic
• Lions and deer
• Monsters and townspeople
• Alligators and swimmers
• Hot lava
• Obstacle course
• Firefighters
• Race cars
• Submarine
• Astronauts
• Royal family
• Library
• Aliens
• Movie and TV show characters
• Much more

There are many ways to reliably embarrass yourself in life. One of them is to reveal your lack of knowledge of the whereabouts of continents, oceans, nations and cities. Of course, one of the easiest ways to commit locations to memory is to visit them, even briefly, so you can associate unique sights and other sensory experiences (even emotion) to a point on a map.

ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE: GEOGRAPHY

Latitude lines/parallels: Imaginary lines running horizontally around the globe. They are measured in degrees, with the equator at 0° latitude, the north pole at 90° north and the south pole at 90° south.

Longitude lines/meridians: Imaginary lines running vertically around the globe. These meet at both poles. They are measured in degrees, with the prime meridian at 0° longitude (at Earth’s axis), and the farthest extensions at 180° east and 180° west.

Geographic coordinates: The two-number combination that gives a location’s latitude and longitude

Hemisphere: One half of the Earth’s surface, as divided by either the equator or by the Prime Meridian. There are four of these: the Northern and Southern hemispheres, divided by the equator (0° latitude); and the Eastern and Western hemispheres, divided by the prime meridian (0° longitude) and the International Date Line (180°).

Equator: The imaginary line around the center of the earth that we measure as zero degrees latitude. The Sun is directly overhead it at noon on the two equinoxes (March and Sept. 20 or 21). It divides the globe into the Northern and Southern hemispheres, and it appears halfway between the North and South poles, at the widest circumference of the globe. It is 24,901.55 miles (40,075.16 km) long.

Prime Meridian: The imaginary line down the center of the earth that we measure as zero degrees longitude (0°). It runs through the Royal Greenwich Observatory in Greenwich, England and divides the globe into the Western and Eastern hemispheres. The Earth’s time zones are measured from it.

International Date Line: The imaginary line located at approximately 180° longitude that, by convention, marks the end of one calendar day and the beginning of the next. It bends around countries to avoid date- and time-related confusion.

Tropic of Cancer: The imaginary line located at 23°30′ north of the equator. The sun is directly above the Tropic of Cancer on the summer solstice in the Northern Hemisphere around June 21. It marks the northernmost point of the tropics, which falls between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn.

Tropic of Capricorn: The imaginary line located at 23°30′ south. The Sun is directly above the Tropic of Capricorn on the summer solstice in the Southern Hemisphere around December 21. It marks the southernmost point of the tropics.

Arctic Circle: A line of latitude located at 66°30′ north, delineating the Northern Frigid Zone of the Earth.

Antarctic Circle: A line of latitude located at 66°30′ south, delineating the Southern Frigid Zone of the Earth.

Map projections: Distorted representations of the relative locations on Earth that allow for two-dimensional map making.

Mercator projection: The most famous map projection, which shows the far northern and southern areas of Earth as much larger than they are

Pangea: The most recent single, unified supercontinent to have preceded the current continental forms on the earth

The six main types of landforms: Mountains, hills, valleys, plateaus, plains, deserts. Islands, peninsulas, canyons, and deltas are also sometimes considered separate types of landforms, and there are many variations of all of these.

The seven continents: In order of size: Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica, Europe, and Australasia/Oceania. Note that some people consider Asia and Europe as one continent that they refer to as Eurasia. Also note that the Middle East is considered part of Asia and is sometimes referred to as Asia Minor.

The five oceans: The Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Southern, and Arctic oceans

The Mediterranean Sea: The large body of water that lies between Europe, Africa and Asia and is mostly enclosed by land

The Tigris and Euphrates rivers: The river system that borders Mesopotamia and is surrounded by the Fertile Crescent in the Middle East

The Fertile Crescent: The part of the Middle East that surrounds the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and is the birthplace of farming and civilization

The Caspian Sea: The world’s largest inland body of water, located between Europe and Asia, with historical trading and political significance

The Nile River: The deep, gentle river in Africa that connects with the Mediterranean Sea. It is known for its predictable patterns and surrounding deserts. Its independent biosphere causes predictable flood patterns so that early civilizations did not need irrigation systems.

The Yellow River: The river in China on which Chinese civilization first sprang up

The Yangtze River: The longest river in Asia and the third-longest in the world to flow entirely within one country

The Gulf of Mexico: A basin of the Atlantic Ocean, largely surrounded by Mexico and the Gulf Coast of the U.S.

The Missouri River: The longest river in North America and a tributary of the Mississippi River

The Mississippi River: The second-longest river in North America

The Great Lakes: A collection of lakes on the border of the U.S. and Canada that include: Lake Superior, Lake Michigan, Lake Erie, Lake Huron and Lake Ontario

Mount Everest: The highest mountain in the world, which is located on the borders of Nepal and Tibet

K2: The second-highest mountain in the world, which is located on the borders of Pakistan and China

Mount Kilimanjaro: The highest mountain in Africa

Mount Denali: The highest mountain in North America and the mountain formerly known as Mount McKinley

The Andes: The longest continental mountain range in the world, located along the western edge of South America

The Alps: The highest mountain range system that lies entirely in Europe

The Ural Mountains: The mountain range that lies along the western border of Russia that is the natural boundary between Europe and Asia

The Rocky Mountains: The largest mountain range in North America, which lies north to south in the western part of the U.S.

The Appalachian Mountains: The second largest mountain range that lies entirely in North America, which lies north to south in the eastern part of the U.S.

The Gobi Desert: A large desert located in Mongolia and China

The Mojave Desert: A large desert located in the southwestern United States

The Antarctic Desert: The snow and ice desert that makes up the continent of Antarctica and that is considered the largest desert in the world

The Arctic: The region located on and around the North Pole, including the Arctic Ocean and several nearby countries

The Arabian Desert: A large desert located in the Middle East

The Sahara Desert: The desert located in northern Africa that expands and contracts regularly. In prehistoric times, it shrank enough to allow humans to migrate out of Africa. In ancient times, it became increasingly dry, preventing communication between Northern and Southern Africans. Egyptians in the North had much more contact with Middle Easterners and Europeans than they did with Africans south of the Sahara.

Sub-saharan Africa: The area of Africa located south of the Sahara Desert which, during its early history, evolved separately and cut off from northern Africa and Eurasia

The Horn of Africa: The easternmost part of the African mainland

The Gold Coast: The region on the coast of West Africa that includes modern-day Ghana, parts of Togo and parts of the Ivory Coast that got this name during colonial times due to their gold supplies

Oceania: The area of the world that encompasses Polynesia, Melanesia, and Micronesia in the Pacific Ocean

Polynesia: The islands of the central and southern Pacific, including Hawaii, Samoa, Tonga, Fiji, the Cook Islands and more

Melanesia: The islands of the western Pacific, including Papua New Guinea, Fiji, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and New Caledonia

Micronesia: The islands of the western Pacific, including the Marshall Islands, Palau, Guam, and the Federated States of Micronesia

The United Kingdom: The country that includes England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland

Great Britain: The landmass that includes England, Scotland, and Wales, but not Northern Ireland

England: The largest and most populous country within the United Kingdom, with London as its capital

Ireland: The separate country on the island of Ireland that is not part of the United Kingdom

The five climate zones of Earth: Arctic and antarctic (in the far north and south); north temperate and south temperate; and tropical (the middle of Earth on both sides of the equator)

The four U.S. mainland time zones: Pacific Time (PT: UTC-8); Mountain Time (MT: UTC-7); Central Time (CT: UTC-6); and Eastern Time (ET: UTC-5). Other time zones are used in Alaska, Hawaii and elsewhere. During daylight saving time, some of these time zones shift one hour. When daylight savings time is not being observed, “standard” is added, so that PT, MT, CT and ET become PST, MST, CST and EST. When daylight savings time is being observed, the same abbreviations become PDT, MDT, CDT and EDT.

The five regions of the U.S.: The West Coast/West, the Southwest, the Midwest, the Southeast and the East Coast/Northeast

The current number of countries in the world: Almost 200

The current population of the world: Approximately eight billion

The largest country in the world by area: Russian Federation

The smallest country in the world by area and population: Vatican City

The country with the highest life expectancy in the world: Japan

The country with the highest gross national product (GNP) in the world: The United States

The three most populous nations in the world: China, India and the United States

The five most populous cities in the world: Tokyo, Japan; Delhi, India; Shanghai, China; São Paulo, Brazil; and Mumbai, India. New York, U.S.; Seoul, South Korea; and Mexico City, Mexico are close to the top of the list.

Capital of Alabama: Montgomery

Capital of Alaska: Juneau

Capital of Arizona: Phoenix

Capital of Arkansas: Little Rock

Capital of California: Sacramento

Capital of Colorado: Denver

Capital of Connecticut: Hartford

Capital of Delaware: Dover

Capital of Florida: Tallahassee

Capital of Georgia: Atlanta

Capital of Hawaii: Honolulu

Capital of Idaho: Boise

Capital of Illinois: Springfield

Capital of Indiana: Indianapolis

Capital of Iowa: Des Moines

Capital of Kansas: Topeka

Capital of Kentucky: Frankfort

Capital of Louisiana: Baton Rouge

Capital of Maine: Augusta

Capital of Maryland: Annapolis

Capital of Massachusetts: Boston

Capital of Michigan: Lansing

Capital of Minnesota: St. Paul

Capital of Mississippi: Jackson

Capital of Missouri: Jefferson City

Capital of Montana: Helena

Capital of Nebraska: Lincoln

Capital of Nevada: Carson City

Capital of New Hampshire: Concord

Capital of New Jersey: Trenton

Capital of New Mexico: Santa Fe

Capital of New York: Albany

Capital of North Carolina: Raleigh

Capital of North Dakota: Bismarck

Capital of Ohio: Columbus

Capital of Oklahoma: Oklahoma City

Capital of Oregon: Salem

Capital of Pennsylvania: Harrisburg

Capital of Rhode Island: Providence

Capital of South Carolina: Columbia

Capital of South Dakota: Pierre

Capital of Tennessee: Nashville

Capital of Texas: Austin

Capital of Utah: Salt Lake City

Capital of Vermont: Montpelier

Capital of Virginia: Richmond

Capital of Washington: Olympia

Capital of West Virginia: Charleston

Capital of Wisconsin: Madison

Capital of Wyoming: Cheyenne

Capital of the United States: Washington D.C.

Capital of Canada: Ottawa

Capital of Mexico: Mexico City

Capital of Russia: Moscow

Capital of Australia: Canberra

Capital of South Africa: Cape Town

Capital of Egypt: Cairo

Capital of Uganda: Kampala

Capital of Kenya: Nairobi

Capital of United Kingdom: London

Capital of Spain: Madrid

Capital of France: Paris

Capital of Italy: Rome

Capital of Germany: Berlin

Capital of Northern Ireland: Belfast

Capital of Denmark: Copenhagen

Capital of Ireland: Dublin

Capital of Scotland: Edinburgh

Capital of Finland: Helsinki

Capital of Norway: Oslo

Capital of Sweden: Stockholm

Capital of the Netherlands: Amsterdam

Capital of Austria: Vienna

Capital of Greece: Athens

Capital of Poland: Warsaw

Capital of Turkey: Ankara

Capital of Czech Republic: Prague

Capital of Serbia: Belgrade

Capital of Slovakia: Bratislava

Capital of Romania: Bucharest

Capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina: Sarajevo

Capital of Hungary: Budapest

Capital of Iraq: Baghdad

Capital of Palestine: Jerusalem

Capital of Afghanistan: Kabul

Capital of Peru: Lima

Capital of Chile: Santiago

Capital of Colombia: Bogota

Capital of Argentina: Buenos Aires

Capital of Venezuela: Caracas

Capital of Guatemala: Guatemala City

Capital of Panama: Panama City

Capital of China: Beijing

Capital of Japan: Tokyo

Capital of India: New Delhi

Capital of South Korea: Seoul

Capital of Taiwan: Taipei

Capital of Thailand: Bangkok

Capital of Philippines: Manila

Capital of Singapore: Singapore

Capital of Indonesia: Jakarta

Capital of Vietnam: Hanoi

Capital of Nepal: Kathmandu

Capital of Malaysia: Kuala Lumpur

Capital of Mongolia: Ulaanbaatar

State in which Chicago is located: Illinois

State in which Boston is located: Massachusetts

State in which Philadelphia is located: Pennsylvania

State in which New York is located: New York

State in which San Francisco is located: California

State in which Los Angeles is located: California

Country in which Toronto is located: Canada

Country in which Montreal is located: Canada

Country in which Vancouver is located: Canada

Country in which Sydney is located: Australia

Country in which Melbourne is located: Australia

Country in which Auckland is located: New Zealand

Country in which Berlin is located: Germany

Country in which Brussels is located: Belgium

Country in which Amsterdam is located: Netherlands

Country in which Zurich is located: Switzerland

Country in which Copenhagen is located: Denmark

Country in which Milan is located: Italy

Country in which Manchester is located: United Kingdom (UK)

Country in which Vienna is located: Austria

Country in which Warsaw is located: Poland

Country in which Barcelona is located: Spain

Country in which Lisbon is located: Portugal

Country in which Johannesburg is located: South Africa

Country in which Mogadishu is located: Somalia

Country in which Sao Paulo is located: Brazil

Country in which Rio de Janeiro is located: Brazil

Country in which St. Petersburg is located: Russia

Country in which Prague is located: Czech Republic

Country in which Minsk is located: Belarus

Country in which Istanbul is located: Turkey

Country in which Tel Aviv is located: Israel

Country in which Dubai is located: United Arab Emirates (UAE)

Country in which Abu Dhabi is located: United Arab Emirates (UAE)

Country in which Shanghai is located: China

Country in which Hong Kong is located: China

Country in which Singapore is located: Singapore

Country in which Ho Chi Minh City is located: Vietnam

Country in which Phnom Penh is located: Cambodia

Country in which Jakarta is located: Indonesia

Country in which Bangkok is located: Thailand

Abbreviation of Alabama: AL

Abbreviation of Alaska: AK

Abbreviation of Arizona: AZ

Abbreviation of Arkansas: AR

Abbreviation of California: CA

Abbreviation of Colorado: CO

Abbreviation of Connecticut: CT

Abbreviation of Delaware: DE

Abbreviation of Florida: FL

Abbreviation of Georgia: GA

Abbreviation of Hawaii: HI

Abbreviation of Idaho: ID

Abbreviation of Illinois: IL

Abbreviation of Indiana: IN

Abbreviation of Iowa: IA

Abbreviation of Kansas: KS

Abbreviation of Kentucky: KY

Abbreviation of Louisiana: LA

Abbreviation of Maine: ME

Abbreviation of Maryland: MD

Abbreviation of Massachusetts: MA

Abbreviation of Michigan: MI

Abbreviation of Minnesota: MN

Abbreviation of Mississippi: MS

Abbreviation of Missouri: MO

Abbreviation of Montana: MT

Abbreviation of Nebraska: NE

Abbreviation of Nevada: NV

Abbreviation of New Hampshire: NH

Abbreviation of New Jersey: NJ

Abbreviation of New Mexico: NM

Abbreviation of New York: NY

Abbreviation of North Carolina: NC

Abbreviation of North Dakota: ND

Abbreviation of Ohio: OH

Abbreviation of Oklahoma: OK

Abbreviation of Oregon: OR

Abbreviation of Pennsylvania: PA

Abbreviation of Rhode Island: RI

Abbreviation of South Carolina: SC

Abbreviation of South Dakota: SD

Abbreviation of Tennessee: TN

Abbreviation of Texas: TX

Abbreviation of Utah: UT

Abbreviation of Vermont: VT

Abbreviation of Virginia: VA

Abbreviation of Washington: WA

Abbreviation of West Virginia: WV

Abbreviation of Wisconsin: WI

Abbreviation of Wyoming: WY

Like freedom and fun, creativity is an inborn need. If you haven’t discovered this need in yourself, it’s possible you haven’t yet found your medium. It’s also possible that this checklist of art and craft skills will pique your interest.

ESSENTIAL SKILLS: FINE ARTS

• Drawing: chalk, charcoal, crayon, marker, oil pastels, pen, pencil
• Painting (with acrylic paint, oil paint, watercolor on canvas, glass, fabric, human body, plaster, wood, walls with brushes, sponges, hands, stencils and more; this includes murals)
• Sculpture: wood, wax, stone, metal, clay and mixed media
• Performance art: Dance, theater, music
• Collage, fresco and mosaic
• Conceptual and installation art
• Multimedia art, including recycled material art

ESSENTIAL SKILLS: APPLIED ARTS

• Architecture
• Carpentry/woodworking
• Building (go-karts, playground structures, garden trellises, etc.)
• Ceramics/pottery
• Film making
• Culinary art
• Glass blowing
• Lighting design
• Landscape architecture
• Graphic narratives/Comics/Cartooning
• Photography
• Printmaking
• Fashion design
• Model making
• Collecting
• Scrapbooking
• Textile arts: Crocheting, sewing, knitting, macrame, weaving and more
• Graphic design/electronic art (creating brochures, magazines, etc.)
• Website creation
• Digital printing
• Video game creation

Easy Crafts for Children

• Clay/Play-Doh modeling
• Braiding and weaving
• Making wrapping paper
• Beading
• Making bean-filled heat packs to heat in the microwave
• Making greeting cards
• Making bound books
• Making Christmas ornaments
• Weaving paper baskets
• Making masks
• Making paper chains
• Making edible necklaces and Christmas strings with popcorn or apples
• Making mobiles
• Making hand and finger puppets
• Making miniature villages or people from various materials
• Plastic bag painting (putting paint and small objects in a plastic baggie and shaking)
• Coloring
• Stamping
• Making leaf and hand prints and rubbings
• Gluing and taping with recycled materials
• Hole punching and tying string
• Making egg carton treasure boxes
• Making stick and popsicle stick art, such as a flower pots or a birdhouse

You know how out of the blue one day you hear a song you used to love and you think, I can’t forget this again. I have to write it down. You start to wonder how many other great songs you’ve let slip from memory. Then you have kids, and you start actively seeking them out so you can pass them on. This list is a good jumping-off point for that process.

It’s highly unlikely that all your favorite songs are listed here. But there are a lot of great ones, and many that you’ll hear here and there throughout your life. Listen to them at the YouTube links provided, absorbing the style of each artist and thinking critically about what you like, what you don’t like, and why. No need to memorize song titles, but a working recall of most of these artists will help you immensely in your many enjoyable music-related conversations to come.

This list is a work in progress; check back for updates.

ESSENTIAL RESOURCES: CLASSIC SONGS AND MUSICAL ARTISTS

Classical Compositions

• Toccata and Fugue in D Minor, BWV 565, Johann Sebastian Bach (1600s)
• Allegro from Brandenburg Concerto No 3, Johann Sebastian Bach (1600s)
• Air from Orchestral Suite No 3, Johann Sebastian Bach (1600s)
• Vivace from Double Violin Concerto, Johann Sebastian Bach (1600s)
• Ave Maria, Johann Sebastian Bach and Charles Gounod (1600s)
• The Hallelujah Chorus from The Messiah, George Frideric Handel (1600s)
• Canon, Johann Pachelbel (1600s)
• Moonlight Sonata, Ludwig van Beethoven (1700s)
• Fur Elise, Ludwig van Beethoven (1700s)
• Adagio Sostenuto from Moonlight Sonata, Ludwig van Beethoven (1700s)
• Ode to Joy from Symphony No 9, Ludwig van Beethoven (1700s)
• Allegro Con Brio from Symphony No 5, Ludwig van Beethoven (1700s)
• Overture from The Magic Flute, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1700s)
• Reminiscences de Don Juan from Don Giovanni, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1700s)
• Overture from The Marriage of Figaro, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1700s)
• Adante from Piano Concerto No 21, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1700s)
• Rondo Alla Turca from Piano Concerto No 11, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1700s)
• Lacrimosa from Requiem Mass, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1700s)
• Spring: Allegro from The Four Seasons, Vivaldi (1700s)
• Dance of the Sugar Plum Fairy from The Nutcracker, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (1800s)
• Marche from The Nutcracker, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (1800s)
• Opera 20 Act 2 No 10 Scene (Moderato) from Swan Lake, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (1800s)
• Opera 20 Act 1 No 2 Valse (Corps de Ballet) from Swan Lake, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (1800s)
• The 1812 Overture, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (1800s)
• Tutto nel Mundo from Falstaff, Giuseppe Verdi (1800s)
• Overture from The Barber of Seville, Gioachino Rossini (1800s)
• Hungarian Dance No 5, Johannes Brahms (1800s)
• Spring Waltz, Frederic Chopin (1800s)
• Nocturne No 2, Frederic Chopin (1800s)
• Clair de Lune, Claude Debussy (1800s)
• Symphony No. 9 in E minor, Op. 95/the “From the New World” Symphony from New World Symphony, Antonin Dvorak (1800s)
• In the Hall of the Mountain King from Peer Gynt Suite, Edvard Grieg (1800s)
• Morning (Hovis Advert) from Peer Gynt Suite, Edvard Grieg (1800s)
• Anitra’s Dance from Peer Gynt Suite, Edvard Grieg (1800s)
• Hebrides Overture, Mendelssohn (1800s)
• Ave Maria, Franz Schubert (1800s)
• The Beautiful Blue Danube, Johann Strauss (1800s)
• Chorus of the Hebrew Slaves, Giuseppe Verdi (1800s)
• The Ride of the Valkyries, Richard Wagner (1800s)
• Wedding Chorus from Lohengrin, Richard Wagner (1800s)
• Prelude from Carmen, Georges Bizet (1800s)
• Habanera from Carmen, Georges Bizet (1800s)
• Radetzky March, Johann Strauss (1800s)
• Meditation from Thais, Massanet (1800s)
• Hebrides Overture (Fingal’s Cave), Mendelssohn (1800s)
• Pomp and Circumstance March No 1, Sir Edward Elgar (1800s and 1900s)
• Che Gelida Manina from La Boeme, Giacomo Puccini (1800s and 1900s)
• Humming Chorus from Madame Butterfly, Giacomo Puccini (1800s and 1900s)
• Dance of the Adolescents from The Rite of Spring, Igor Stravinsky (1900s)
• O Fortuna from Carmina Burana, Carl Orff (1900s)
• Peter and the Wolf, Sergei Prokofiev (1900s)
• Glassworks, Philip Glass (1900s)
• Interstellar, Hans Zimmer (1900s)
• Time, Hans Zimmer (1900s)
• Star Wars Theme, John Williams (1900s)
• The Metamorphosis, Philip Glass (1900s)

Folk Songs and Spirituals

• The Star-Spangled Banner
• America, the Beautiful
• America (My Country Tis Of Thee)
• God Bless America
• You’re a Grand Old Flag
• The U.S. Air Force Song (Off We Go Into the Wild Blue Yonder)
• The Marine’s Hymn
• The Battle Hymn of the Republic (Glory Glory Hallelujah)
• When the Saints Go Marching In
• Amazing Grace
• How Great Thou Art
• I’ll Fly Away
• Kumbaya
• He’s Got the Whole World
• Swing Low Sweet Chariot
• What a Friend We Have in Jesus
• This Little Light of Mine
• I’ve Got Peace Like a River
• Michael, Row the Boat Ashore
• Go Tell It on the Mountain
• Happy Birthday to You
• Oh, Susanna
• Coconut
• Banana Boat Song (Day-O)
• Home on the Range
• You Are My Sunshine
• Someone’s In the Kitchen With Dinah
• Take Me Out to the Ballgame
• I’ve Been Workin’ on the Railroad
• Alouette
• Clementine
• On Top of Old Smokey
• Yankee Doodle
• My Bonnie Lies Over the Ocean

Christmas Carols

• The First Noel
• Joy to the World
• Silent Night
• The Twelve Days of Christmas
• We Three Kings
• We Wish You a Merry Christmas
• Angels We Have Heard on High
• Away in a Manger
• Auld Lang Syne
• Deck the Halls
• God Rest Ye Merry Gentlemen
• Hark! The Herald Angels Sing
• O Holy Night
• O Little Town of Bethlehem
• O Christmas Tree
• Oh Come All Ye Faithful
• The Christmas Song (Chestnuts Roasting)
• Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas
• What Child Is This?
• White Christmas
• Holly, Jolly Christmas
• I Heard the Bells on Christmas Day
• I’ll Be Home for Christmas
• I’m Dreaming of a White Christmas
• It Came Upon the Midnight Clear
• What Child Is This
• Ave Maria
• Winter Wonderland
• The Little Drummer Boy
• Here Comes Santa Claus
• Jingle Bell Rock
• Let It Snow
• Jingle Bells
• Frosty, the Snowman
• Rudolph, the Red-Nosed Reindeer
• Santa Claus Is Coming to Town

Children’s Songs and Rhymes

• The Alphabet Song
• Rock-a-Bye Baby
• Ba Ba Black Sheep
• Mary Had a Little Lamb
• Hush, Little Baby
• Skidamarink
• Skip to My Lou
• Knees Up Mother Brown
• Down by the Bay
• The Itsy Bitsy Spider
• Frere Jacques
• Lollipop, Lollipop
• If You’re Happy and You Know It
• Skip to My Lou
• The More We Get Together
• This Old Man
• The Ants Go Marching One By One
• Row, Row, Row Your Boat
• Five Little Monkeys
• Old McDonald
• Three Blind Mice
• Nick Nack Paddywack
• Pop Goes the Weasel
• Here We Go Round the Mulberry Bush
• London Bridge Is Falling Down
• She’ll Be Comin’ Round the Mountain
• Little Bo Peep
• Sing a Song of Sixpence
• A Tisket a Tasket
• Little Boy Blue
• Old King Cole
• Little Miss Muffet
• The Muffin Man
• Over the River and Through the Wood
• The Farmer In the Dell
• Baby Bumble Bee
• BINGO
• Do Your Ears Hang Low?
• John Jacob Jingleheimer Schmidt
• Where is Thumbkin?
• Are You Sleeping, Brother John?
• Five Little Ducks
• There’s a Hole in the Bucket
• Twinkle Twinkle Little Star
• Head, Shoulders, Knees and Toes
• I’m a Little Teapot
• The Wheels on the Bus
• You’ll Sing a Song
• Down By the Riverside
• Lavender’s Blue
• Where, Oh, Where Has My Little Dog Gone?
• How Much Is That Doggy In the Window
• The Green Grass Grew All Around
• It’s Raining, It’s Pouring

Songs from Musicals

• Tomorrow (Annie)
• Maybe (Annie)
• Hard Knock Life (Annie)
• Somewhere Over the Rainbow (The Wizard of Oz)
• When You Wish Upon a Star (Pinocchio)
• Footloose (Footloose)
• You’re the One That I Want (Grease)
• Summer Days (Grease)
• I Could Have Danced All Night (My Fair Lady)
• Sunrise, Sunset (Fiddler on the Roof)
• Tradition (Fiddler on the Roof)
• Oklahoma! (Oklahoma!)
• Oh What a Beautiful Morning (Oklahoma!)
• I Feel Pretty (West Side Story)
• Da-Doo (Little Shop of Horrors)
• Skid Row (Little Shop of Horrors)
• Beauty and the Beast (Beauty and the Beast)
• This Provincial Life (Beauty and the Beast)
• Be Our Guest (Beauty and the Beast)
• Kiss the Girl (The Little Mermaid)
• Spoonful of Sugar (The Sound of Music)
• Edelweiss (The Sound of Music)
• Sixteen Going on Seventeen (The Sound of Music)
• My Favorite Things (The Sound of Music)
• Do-Re-Mi (The Sound of Music)
• Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious (The Sound of Music)
• Moon River (Breakfast at Tiffany’s)
• Bali Ha’i (South Pacific)
• I’m Gonna Wash That Man Right Outta My Hair (South Pacific)
• Sisters (White Christmas)
• Anything You Can Do (Annie Get Your Gun)
• Sit Down, You’re Rocking’ the Boat (Guys and Dolls)
• Singing in the Rain (Singing in the Rain)

Popular Artists

1920s, 30s and 40s

• Billie Holiday (Blue Moon; God Bless the Child)
• Doris Day (Dream a Little Dream of Me; Que Sera Sera; Perhaps, Perhaps)
• Frank Sinatra (My Way; Fly Me to the Moon; New York, New York; That’s Life; I’ve Got the World on a String)
• Bing Crosby (Swingin’ on a Star; Let Me Call You Sweetheart)
• Sammy Davis Jr. (I’ve Gotta Be Me; Candy Man)

1950s and 60s

• Elvis Presley (Can’t Help Falling in Love; Love Me Tender; Blue Suede Shoes; Hound Dog; Jailhouse Rock; Don’t Be Cruel; All Shook Up)
• Otis Redding (I’ve Been Loving You too Long [to Stop Now]; [Sittin’ on] the Dock of the Bay; Try a Little Tenderness; I’ve Got Dreams to Remember)
• Bill Withers (Just the Two of Us; Lean on Me; Ain’t No Sunshine)
• Ella Fitzgerald
• Nina Simone (I Ain’t Got No/I Got Life; Sinnerman; I Put a Spell on You)
• Etta James (At Last; Something’s Got a Hold on Me)
• B.B. King (The Thrill Is Gone; Every Day I Have the Blues)
• Louis Armstrong (What a Wonderful World; Cheek to Cheek; Unforgettable)
• Miles Davis (Blue in Green; So What)
• John Coltrane (A Love Supreme, Parts 1-4; Naima)
• Duke Ellington (It Don’t Mean a Thing [If It Ain’t Got That Swing])
• Muddy Waters (Mannish Boy)
• Sam Cooke (A Change Is Gonna Come; What A Wonderful World/Don’t Know Much About History)
• John Lee Hooker (Boom Boom)
• Chuck Berry (Johnny B. Goode; No Particular Place to Go; Maybelline; Roll Over Beethoven; Sweet Little Sixteen; You Never Can Tell)
• Bobby Darin (Dream Lover)
• Buddy Holly (Everyday; That’ll Be the Day; Peggy Sue)
• Frankie Lymon and the Teenagers (Why Do Fools Fall in Love)
• Frankie Valli (Big Girls Don’t Cry; Walk Like a Man; Can’t Take My Eyes Off You)
• Jackie Wilson (Lonely Teardrops; [Your Love Keeps Lifting Me] Higher and Higher)
• Jerry Lee Lewis (Great Balls of Fire; Whole Lotta Shakin’ Goin’ On)
• Patsy Cline (I Fall to Pieces; Walkin’ After Midnight; Crazy)
• The Drifters (Under the Boardwalk; Save the Last Dance for Me)
• The Everly Brothers (All I Have to Do Is Dream; Bye Bye Love; Wake Up Little Susie)
• Four Tops (Reach Out [I’ll Be There]; I Can’t Help Myself [Sugar Pie, Honey Bunch]; Baby I Need Your Loving; Walk Away Renee)
• The Isley Brothers (Shout, Parts 1 and 2; This Old Heart of Mine [Is Weak for You])
• The Righteous Brothers (Unchained Melody; You’ve Lost That Lovin’ Feelin’)
• The Ronettes (Be My Baby)
• Fats Domino (Blueberry Hill)
• The Shirelles (Mama Said; Will You Love Me Tomorrow)
• The Spencer Davis Group (Gimme Some Lovin’)
• The Staple Singers (I’ll Take You There; Respect Yourself; Let’s Do It Again)
• The Supremes/Diana Ross (Baby Love; Where Did Our Love Go; Stop! In the Name of Love; You Keep Me Hanging On; You Can’t Hurry Love; I Hear a Symphony)
• The Temptations (My Girl)
• Roy Orbison (Only the Lonely; Oh, Pretty Woman)
• Little Richard (Good Golly, Miss Molly; Tutti Frutti; Long Tall Sally)
• Dion (Teenager in Love, The Wanderer, Runaround Sue, Abraham, Martin and John)
• Paul Anka (Put Your Head on My Shoulder)
• Wilson Pickett (In the Midnight Hour; Land of a 1,000 Dances; Mustang Sally)

1970s

• The Beatles (All You Need is Love; Come Together; Hey, Jude; Let It Be; Yesterday; Yellow Submarine; Ticket to Ride; While My Guitar Gently Weeps; With a Little Help From My Friends)
• John Lennon (In My Life; Strawberry Fields Forever; Imagine; Happy Christmas [War Is Over])
• Aretha Franklin (Respect; [You Make Me Feel Like a] Natural Woman; Chain of Fools; I Say a Little Prayer)
• Bob Dylan (Like a Rolling Stone’ Blowing in the Wind; Knockin’ on Heaven’s Door; Mr. Tambourine Man; The Times They Are a-Changin’)
• Cat Stevens (Wild World; Morning Has Broken; Cat’s in the Cradle; Where Do the Children Play; Blowin’ in the Wind)
• John Denver (Take Me Home, Country Roads; Annie’s Song; Rocky Mountain High; Home Grown Tomatoes)
• Willie Nelson (On the Road Again; Mamas Don’t Let Your Babies Grow Up to Be Cowboys; Always on My Mind)
• Johnny Cash (Ring of Fire; I Walk the Line; Hurt)
• Simon and Garfunkel (Bridge Over Troubled Water; Scarborough Fair; Mrs. Robinson; The Sound of Silence)
• Peter, Paul and Mary (Puff the Magic Dragon; Blowin’ in the Wind; If I Had a Hammer; Lemon Tree; We Shall Overcome; Leaving on a Jet Plane)
• The Carpenters (We’ve Only Just Begun; Close to You; Yesterday Once More; Rainy Days and Mondays)
• The Grateful Dead/Jerry Garcia (Workingman’s Dead; Uncle John’s Band)
• The Jimi Hendrix Experience/Jimi Hendrix (All Along the Watchtower; Purple Haze)
• Janis Joplin (Me and Bobby McGee; Piece of My Heart; Summertime)
• Joni Mitchell (Both Sides Now; Help Me; Big Yellow Taxi)
• The Doors/Jim Morrison (Light My Fire; People Are Strange; Riders on a Storm; Break on Through to the Other Side)
• The Eagles (Hotel California; The Long Run; Take It Easy)
• The Byrds (Mr. Tambourine Man; Turn! Turn! Turn!)
• James Taylor (Five and Rain; Sweet Baby James; You’ve Got a Friend; Carolina in My Mind)
• Neil Young (Cortez the Killer; Rockin’ in the Free World; Sugar Mountain)
• Credence Clearwater Revival (Have you Ever Seen the Rain?; Bad Moon Rising; Proud Mary; Who’ll Stop the Rain; Down on the Corner)
• Lou Reed (Walk on the Wild Side; Perfect Day)
• Sonny and Cher (I Got You Babe)
• The Beach Boys (California Girls; Surfin’ USA; I Get Around; Good Vibrations)
• The Jackson 5 (I Want You Back)
• Nancy Sinatra (These Boots are Made for Walkin’; Bang Bang)
• Joe Cocker (With a Little Help From My Friends; You Are So Beautiful)
• Al Green (Let’s Stay Together; Love and Happiness; Take Me to the River)
• Curtis Mayfield (People Get Ready; Superfly)
• James Brown (Get Up [I Feel Like Being a] Sex Machine; I Got You [I Feel Good])
• Elvis Costello ([What’s So Funny About] Peace, Love and Understanding)
• Marvin Gaye (Let’s Get It On; I Heard It Through the Grapevine; Ain’t No Mountain High Enough; Mercy Mercy Me)
• Sam & Dave (Soul Man)
• Sly and the Family Stone (Hot Fun in the Summertime; Family Affair)
• Smokey Robinson and The Miracles (Cruisin’; You Really Got a Hold on Me)
• Kool and the Gang (Jungle Boogie)
• Gloria Gaynor (I Will Survive)
• Bee Gees (Stayin’ Alive)

1980s

• Barbra Streisand (The Way We Were; You Don’t Bring Me Flowers; Don’t Lie to Me)
• Bette Midler (From a Distance; I Think It’s Gonna Rain Today; Wind Beneath My Wings)
• Billy Joel (Piano Man; New York State of Mind; We Didn’t Start the Fire)
• Bob Marley (Don’t Worry Be Happy; Three Little Birds; I Shot the Sheriff; One Love)
• Bruce Springsteen (Born in the U.S.A.; Dancin’ in the Dark; Streets of Philadelphia)
• Cyndi Lauper (Girls Just Want to Have Fun; True Colors; Time After Time)
• David Bowie (Ziggy Stardust; Let’s Dance)
• Dolly Parton (I Will Always Love You; 9 to 5)
• Gladys Knight (Midnight Train to Georgia; I Heard It Through the Grapevine)
• Guns N’ Roses/Axl Rose (Paradise City; Knockin’ on Heaven’s Door; Welcome to the Jungle; November Rain)
• Kenny Rogers (The Gambler)
• Moody Blues (Nights in White Satin)
• Jimmy Cliff (I Can See Clearly Now)
• Madonna (Vogue; Like a Virgin; Material Girl; Like A Prayer)
• Pink Floyd (Money; Another Brick in the Wall Part 2)
• Prince (Kiss; 1999; Purple Rain)
• Queen/Freddie Mercury (We Will Rock You; We Are the Champions; Bohemian Rhapsody; Another One Bites the Dust)
• The Ramones (Blitzkrieg Bop; Sheena Is a Punk Rocker)
• Luther Vandross (Love the One You’re With)
• Lionel Richie (Easy; Stuck On You)
• Lynyrd Skynyrd (Sweet Home Alabama)
• Led Zeppelin (Stairway to Heaven)
• Michael Jackson (Thriller; Bad; Black and White; We Are the World; Billie Jean)
• The Bangles (Walk Like an Egyptian, Manic Monday; Eternal Flame)
• Steppenwolf (Born to Be Wild; Magic Carpet Ride)
• Stevie Nicks (Talk to Me)
• Stevie Wonder (I Just Called to Say I Love You; Isn’t She Lovely; Signed, Sealed, Delivered)
• The Animals (Don’t Let Me Be Misunderstood; The House of the Rising Sun)
• The Clash (Rock the Casbah; London Calling; Should I Stay or Should I Go)
• Neil Diamond (Sweet Caroline)
• Roxette (She’s Got the Look)
• The Rolling Stones ([I Can’t Get No] Satisfaction; Paint It Black; You Can’t Always Get What You Want)
• The Police (Message in a Bottle; Every Breath You Take; Roxanne)
• The Who (Baba O’Riley; I Can See For Miles; Won’t Get Fooled Again)
• Tina Turner (What’s Love Got to Do With It; Proud Mary, Simply the Best)
• Journey (Don’t Stop Believin’)
• Nat King Cole (Unforgettable; When I Fall in Love; Mona Lisa)
• Natalie Cole (Unforgettable; This Will Be [An Everlasting Love])
• Ray Charles (Georgia on My Mind; Night & Day; Hit the Road, Jack; I Got a Woman)
• Tony Bennett (Fly Me to the Moon; I Left My Heart in San Francisco)
• Diana Ross (I’m Coming Out; Endless Love)
• Van Morrison (Brown Eyed Girl; Gloria [Them])

1990s

• Whitney Houston (I Will Always Love You; Greatest Love of All; I Have Nothing)
• Celine Dion (The Power of Love; My Heart Will Go On)
• Eric Clapton (Tears in Heaven; Wonderful Tonight)
• Elton John (Can You Feel the Love Tonight; Rocket Man)
• Eminem (Slim Shady; Without Me; Not Afraid; Godzilla)
• Mariah Carey (I Don’t Wanna Cry; Hero; Vision of Love; Emotions)
• Nirvana/Kurt Cobain (Smells Like Teen Spirit; Come As You Are)
• Alanis Morissette (Ironic)
• Phil Collins (Another Day in Paradise; In the Air Tonight)
• Snoop Dogg (Gin and Juice; Drop It Like It’s Hot)
• Jay Z (Forever Young)

No one is saying you need to become an all-star. But learning the basics of a wide variety of sports helps you understand your options and, almost certainly, find something you will enjoy long-term.

For each of the activities below, learn the basic rules of the game, experience playing the game multiple times, and learn proper form for as many of the skills involved in the game as possible. (This is particularly important with swimming and running.) YouTube videos are an invaluable resource for this.

ESSENTIAL SKILLS: PHYSICAL EDUCATION

Team Sports

• Volleyball
• Soccer
• Baseball/Softball
• Football
• Basketball
• Hockey
• Badminton
• Tennis
• Pickleball
• Cricket
• Polo
• Lacrosse

Solo and Two-Person Sports

• Swimming
• Running
• Biking
• Roller skating
• Ice skating
• Hiking
• Camping
• Water skiing
• Wake boarding
• Surfing
• Sailing
• Rafting
• Snorkeling
• Pool diving
• SCUBA diving
• Kayaking/canoeing/rowing
• Snow skiing
• Snowboarding
• Sledding
• Dance (including square dancing, line dancing, ballet, jazz, tap, swing, ballroom, rumba, hip hop, salsa, and tango)
• Parkour
• Yoga
• Rock climbing
• Martial arts (Jiu Jitsu, Tae Kwon Do, karate, MMA and more)
• Weight lifting
• Wrestling
• Skateboarding
• Golf
• Frisbee
• Frisbee golf
• Gymnastics
• Trampolining
• Aerobatics
• Table tennis/ping pong
• Foosball
• Wiffleball
• Raquetball
• Squash/hardball
• Handball/wallball
• Canyoneering
• Fishing
• Hunting
• Shooting
• Archery
• Horseback riding
• Rodeo sports
• Hang gliding
• Paragliding
• Kite flying
• Parachuting
• Auto racing
• ATV riding
• Snowmobiling
• Motorcycling
• Dune buggying
• Go-kart racing

Yard Games

• Hide and Seek
• Capture the Flag
• Tag
• Sardines
• Dodgeball
• Kick the Can
• Obstacle Courses
• Keep Away
• Scavenger hunts
• Jump roping

I remember learning basic biology in school. It was a long time ago, and yet, most of this stuff stuck. It’s everywhere, after all–in the news, in other books. And yet, after creating this list, I was struck by the fine delineations, especially regarding the differences between genes, genetic traits, chromosomes, alleles, and DNA.

ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE: BIOLOGY

Living thing: An organism that reproduces; grows; responds to stimuli; evolves over time; has metabolism; has homeostasis; and has a cell-based structure

Plant: A multicellular eukaryotic organism that gets its energy from the sun using chlorophyll and does not wholly move. Most reproduce asexually.

Animal: A multicellular eukaryotic organism that usually has a distinct orientation (i.e., a top and a bottom); symmetry; mobility; sexual reproduction; sense perception; and a reliance on living, biological organisms for energy 

Common name: The name commonly used for a species of animal or plant

Scientific name: The official name of an animal or plant. This is usually in Latin and made up of the genus and species names, but sometimes also contains the name of the sub-species.

Habitat: The natural environment in which a species lives and thrives

Life cycle: The stages of growth and development of living things. This is different for different species; for example, frogs have a tadpole stage and caterpillars have a cocoon stage.

Generation: All members of a species bearing offspring around the same time

Food chain: A series of plants and animals that use each other for food

Food web: A series of interlinked food chains

Excretion: The elimination of metabolic waste

Homeostasis: Biological equilibrium, when a living thing’s internal conditions (such as temperature and mineral levels) remain mostly steady

Dormant: Still alive but not actively growing, such as a seed in a package

Decomposition: The breakdown of organic materials (such as dead plants and animals) by bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms so the materials can be recycled in the environment for other uses

Metabolism: The set of life-sustaining chemical reactions in organisms

Parasite: A living thing that feeds on other living things and also uses them as their home

Host: A living thing that homes and feeds a parasite

Evolution: The long series of small but significant genetic changes that happen to living things

Extinction: The dying out of a species

Mass extinction: The large-scale dying out of many species on earth. This happens due to human activity, major weather changes brought on by major events, like an asteroid hitting the earth, and other occurrences.

Natural selection: The natural process by which some species adapt and survive and others die out

Artificial selection: The human-controlled process by which plants and animals with desirable traits are selectively bred in order to produce offspring with those same traits

Male: The sex with the parts needed to fertilize the egg

Female: The sex with the parts needed to produce the egg

Sexual reproduction: Reproduction involving two parents, one male and one female

Asexual reproduction: Reproduction involving only one parent. Algae, mosses and some ferns reproduce this way because they don’t have flowers.

Vegetative reproduction: Asexual reproduction that occurs using a fragment or cutting of a plant. Some examples are plants that grow from runners (like strawberries), from tubers (like potatoes), from cuttings and even from just a few cells (as in a lab).

Fertilization: The combining of genetic material from a sperm cell with the genetic material from an egg cell, which results in conception

Embryo: The newly conceived form of life between the fertilized egg (zygote) stage and the fetus stage

Fetus: An unborn baby who is past the embryonic stage (about nine weeks into the pregnancy)

Ovulation: The release of eggs from the ovaries

Cell: The smallest unit of living matter that can carry out all of the functions of life

Tissue: Cells of the same type combined together to do a particular job

Organ: Tissues of different types working together to do a particular job, such as the stomach

System: Organs of different types working together to do a particular job, such as the digestive system

The eight parts of a plant cell: Cell wall; cell membrane; cytoplasm usually containing chloroplasts, chromoplasts, other organelles and the nucleus; and a large vacuole containing water, sugar and other dissolved substances

The nine parts of an animal cell: Cell membrane; cytoplasm; nucleus; nuclear membrane; mitochondria; ribosomes; endoplasmic reticulum; Golgi complex; and lysosomes

Nucleus: The control center of the cell

Mitochondria: The part of the cell that converts substances into energy

Golgi complex: The cell warehouse that stores and distributes substances made in the cell

Ribosomes: The part of the cell that builds proteins

Lysosomes: The part of the cell that breaks down and recycles waste

Mitosis: The process of cell division that results in two genetically identical cells, each with a set of the same chromosomes. This happens when the nucleus of the cell divides. Most cells reproduce in this way.

Meiosis: The process of cell division that results in four cells, each with half of the original cell’s genetic material. Sex cells (gametes) reproduce in this way.

Cytokinesis: The final stage of cell division in which the cytoplasm and organelles are divided between the two daughter cells

External respiration: The movement of oxygen from the outside environment to the cells within tissues, and the movement of carbon dioxide in the opposite direction

Internal respiration/cellular respiration: The use of oxygen within the cells to convert nutrients (such as glucose) into energy in the form of ATP, which is then used for various cellular processes

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP): An organic chemical that provides the energy needed for various processes in cells, such as muscle contraction, nerve impulse propagation, and chemical synthesis

Aerobic respiration: Internal respiration that uses oxygen

Anaerobic respiration: Internal respiration that doesn’t use oxygen (and produces less ATP)

Enzymes: Proteins that act as catalysts, speeding up chemical reactions in living things

Thermogenesis: The process of heat production in organisms

Basal metabolic rate (BMR): The rate of energy expenditure per unit time by an animal at rest

Calorie: A unit of measurement denoting the amount of heat energy needed to raise the temperature of one gram of water by one degree Celsius, which shows how much energy food provides to animals

Kilocalorie: A unit of measurement denoting the amount of heat energy needed to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water by one degree Celsius, which shows how much energy food provides to animals

Classification/taxonomy: The organizing of things into groups according to their shared features

The eight levels of the taxonomy of living things: Domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species. Also, many species are divided into subspecies called races, breeds or varieties.

The three domains of living things: Bacteria/monera, archaea and eukaryota. Both bacteria and archaea are prokaryota. Scientists disagree about how to divide the domains.

The four kingdoms of eukaryota: Fungi, protistas, plantae and animalia

Prokaryote: A living thing whose cells do not have nuclei

Eukaryote: A living thing whose cells have nuclei

Bacteria/monera: A single-celled prokaryotic organism that exists everywhere on Earth

Archaea: A single-celled prokaryotic organism that has genes, enzymes and other similarities to eukaryota that bacteria do not have 

Fungus: A eukaryotic organism that lacks chlorophyll and feeds on living and dead things, including mold, yeast and mushrooms. Many grow in damp, dark places.

Protista: A eukaryotic organism other than animals, plants, or fungi. This is a catch-all group that includes mold, protozoas, algae and other eukaryotes, most of which live in moist environments.

Protozoa: A single-celled eukaryotic organism. Most feed on organic matter.

Amoeba: A type of protozoa that can change shape, usually by extending out pseudopods (fluid-filled sacs in the shape of arms or tentacles)

Species: The taxonomic level at which all the members can mate and reproduce offspring of their kind

Homo sapiens: The scientific name for the human species. This species belongs to the eukaryota domain; the animal kingdom; the chordata phylum (since they have a stiff rod that supports the body); the mammalia class; the primates order; the Hominidae family; and the Homo genus.

ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE: GENETICS

Genes: The sets of instructions inherited from parents and located in the body’s chromosomes that tell the body how to form particular characteristics. They are in every cell of the body (except red blood cells) and are made up of DNA. Most are either dominant or recessive. Each of these provides instructions for multiple traits, and some traits are determined by multiple genes.

Genome: The complete set of physical genetic material of an organism (DNA or RNA)

Genetic trait: A single characteristic that is expressed in a living thing in the way the related gene determines

Gene map: A visual arrangement showing the organization of the genes on a chromosome. It is used to learn about genetic influences in disease development and other genetic patterns.

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): The chemical that makes up genes, has a double helix shape, and works with RNA to tell the body how to build the proteins that make up genetic traits

Ribonucleic acid (RNA): A chemical found alongside DNA that is similar to DNA in form but performs different functions (except in some viruses, which have RNA in place of DNA). It helps choose which genes are expressed in the organism and carries out the instructions provided by the DNA.

Chromosome: The bundles that hold all of the individual genes and are stored in the nucleus of most body cells. Humans have 23 pairs of these, each of which holds many, many genes.

X and Y chromosomes: The chromosomes that determine gender. Everyone has one X chromosome, but males have a Y and females have a second X.

Dominant gene: The gene in the gene pair that is expressed in the organism, whether paired with a recessive gene or another dominant gene

Recessive gene: The gene in the gene pair that is not expressed in the organism except when there are two associated recessives present, one from each parent

Co-dominance: The state that occurs when the contributions of both genes are displayed in a trait

Allele: One of the two associated genes in a gene pair that occupies the same position on a chromosome and determines the same trait as the other allele in the pair

Homozygote: An organism that has identical alleles for a specific gene

Heterozygote: An organism that has two different alleles for a specific gene, which enables their offspring’s corresponding gene to vary. An organism can be a homozygote for one trait and a heterozygote for a different trait.

Carrier: An organism that has a recessive allele for a genetic trait but does not display it. Carriers can pass the allele onto offspring, who will express it if they inherit the same one from both parents.

DNA profiling: Analyzing sections of an individual’s DNA in order to identify them. It is also known as genetic fingerprinting.

Genetic engineering: The direct manipulation of an organism’s genes using biotechnology

Genetically modified organism (GMO): An animal, plant, or microbe whose DNA has been altered using human-created genetic engineering techniques

Gene splicing: The process of cutting and recombining genes from different organisms or different parts of the same organism to produce specific characteristics

Cloning: Producing genetically identical offspring of an organism either naturally or artificially. In nature, many organisms produce these through asexual reproduction.

Hybrid: A type of offspring produced by the mating of two different species. These are usually unable to reproduce offspring of their own kind due to differences in the chromosomes of the parents.

Ahhhh … smell that fresh air. That’s the smell of you on a walk in a park with your kids, naming the trees and flowers you pass, then explaining sexual versus asexual reproduction.

ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE: BOTANY

Leaf: The part of a plant that makes food, which usually have veins and holes on their undersides to let in water and air

Stem: The part of a plant that supports it and move nutrients between the roots and leaves

Roots: The part of a plant that absorbs water and nutrients from the ground and anchors the plant.They have four parts: the primary root, the secondary roots, root hairs, and the root cap. The five types are: taproots (one main root with small offshoots, like a carrot has); fibrous roots (many equal-sized primary roots, like grasses have); adventitious roots (roots that grow from an unusual part of a plant, like the hairs on an onion bulb); aerial roots (roots that grow aboveground, like ivy has); and prop roots (roots that grow aboveground to provide additional support, like mangroves have).

Bark: The dead protective tissue on the outside of a tree, which is formed in a living layer underneath the current layer after that layer gets pushed out by the new rings that are forming. It provides oxygen and CO2 exchange; protects the tree from disease; insulates the tree; and helps hold in moisture.

Heartwood: The older, central rings of the tree which can no longer transport water and nutrients

Sapwood: The newer, outer rings of the tree which can still transport water

Annual ring: A single layer of thickening of a tree trunk, which takes one year to form

Fruit: The part of the flowering plant that holds the seeds. They include nuts, succulent fruits, berries, pods (like pea pods), kernels (like wheat kernels) and more.

Cone: The part of a conifer tree that holds the seeds. They start out open, then after pollination, close up. When the seeds are ripe and the weather is warm and dry, the scales open and drop the fertilized seeds so they can find dirt to grow in.

Seed: The part of a plant that holds the embryo, a food supply (to help the seed grow before photosynthesis is possible) and a protective coat. They are dispersed through animal excrement, wind, water and catching on animal fur.

Seedling: A small, newly-grown plant

Flower: The part of the plant that produces sex cells and enables reproduction. It can be either male or female. Plants that contain both types don’t need to cross-pollinate with other plants.

Petal: The part of the plant that protects the reproductive parts of the flower and attracts insects needed for pollination

Stamen: The male part of the flower, which contains pollen

Anthers: The top part of the stamen

Pistil/carpel: The female part of the flower, which contains ovules and can trap pollen. After ovules are pollinated they grow into seeds, which grow into fruit, which in turn produce more seeds.

Deciduous plant: A plant that loses its leaves each year

Evergreen plant: A plant that does not shed its leaves all at once, including conifers and some broadleaf trees and shrubs

Conifer: An evergreen with cone-shaped reproductive structures and tough, waxy needles that don’t lose as much water as regular leaves do

Angiosperm: A plant that produce flowers

Gymnosperm: A plant that does not produce flowers, whose seeds are located on its leaves instead

Hydrophyte: A plant that grows in water or waterlogged soil, such as algae, seaweed and lily pads

Pollination: The transfer of pollen from the male part of a plant to the female part of the plant

Photosynthesis: The process green plants use to make food from sunlight, water and air. This happens when chloroplasts in chlorophyll absorb sun energy, which the plant uses to combine water and carbon dioxide to make glucose and oxygen. The glucose is stored as energy for growth, while the oxygen is released into the environment.

Plant respiration: The process green plants use to break down stored energy for growth, in which they take in oxygen and release carbon dioxide and water vapor. Though plants release carbon dioxide, they store more than they use and therefore serve as a CO2 sink, which reduces greenhouse gases in the air.

Dormant: Still alive but not actively growing; for example, a seed in a package

Germination: The waking up of a dormant seed

Growth season: The period of time during which a plant is actively growing and developing, which varies by plant

Annuals: Plants that die after a one-year life cycle

Biennials: Plants that die after a two-year life cycle

Herbaceous perennials: Plants whose roots live many years but whose above ground parts die back each year

Woody perennials: Plants whose roots and aboveground parts continue to live year after year

Ephemerals: Plants with very short lifecycles

Autotrophy: The ability of a plant to make one’s own food

Tropism: The ability of a plant to respond to external stimuli

Geotropism: The ability of a plant to sense gravity and grow away from it in order to seek light

Phototropism: The ability of a plant to sense light and grow toward it

Thigmotropism: The ability of a plant to sense touch

ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE: ZOOLOGY

Biped: An animal with two legs

Quadruped: An animal with four legs

Vertebrate: An animal with a backbone

Invertebrate: An animal with no backbone, such as a snail)

Arthropod: An animal with an external skeleton/ exoskeleton, such as a grasshopper

Warm-blooded: Having the ability to regulate one’s body temperature

Cold-blooded: Having a body whose temperature changes with the environment

Herbivore: An animal that eats primarily or only plants

Carnivore: An animal that eats primarily or only meat

Omnivore: An animal that eats both plants and meat

Larva: The form some animals take before beginning metamorphosis

Pupa: The form some animals take during metamophosis

Metamorphosis: The total restructuring of an animal’s body, which sometimes happens inside a cocoon or chrysalis

Hibernation: A period of inactivity in some animals that includes the slowing of the metabolism

Migration: The large-scale movement of a species from one place to another

Echolocation: The ability of some animals, such as bats, to locate solid objects by emitting sound and hearing the echo come back to them

The main body structures of most animals: A fluid-filled cavity and a skeleton to hold the cavity in place and allow for movement; an outer layer to enclose the body, which can be skin, an exoskeleton, a cuticle, scales, shells, prickles, fur and more; and a part or parts of the body to provide for locomotion, such as fins, flippers, wings, legs, etc.

Animal senses: Sight; smell; taste; balance; touch (including through whiskers and tentacles); a sense of gravity; a sense of water pressure and currents (as some fish have); a sense of electric pulses (as sharks have); and possibly, a sense of Earth’s magnetic fields (as birds may have)

Types of animal communication: Body language, such as preening or dancing; making noises, such as using vocal cords or rubbing body parts together; sending out chemical messages through pheromones or by spraying; and changing color

Two types of animal reproduction: Laying eggs (before or after fertilization) and giving birth to live young

Lots of people will tell you that learning a new language is easy. And it can be . . . but it usually isn’t. The problem isn’t with the actual difficulty of the language, though. The problem is that we don’t practice.

Unless you live among native speakers, it’s a problem that’s not easily remedied. My suggestion: every few months (more if you’re in a hurry), play some audio recordings of words with translations or children’s music in the car on repeat. Language learning is not an all-at-once thing; you’ll need lots of time and repetition to let it sink in. If possible, be casual about it, but be consistent.

If you’re a person who enjoys reading and writing, copy your word lists onto flash cards or foldable lists. Personally, I spend countless hours writing and rewriting my lists when in full-on language learning mode.

You can also make games out of your vocabulary words–all kinds of fun games. At the end of this post I provide a story you can tell your kids that incorporates practice and repetition (theirs or yours).

Greetings

Hello: Hola
Good morning: Buenas dias
Good afternoonL Buenas tardes
Good evening: Buenas noches
Goodbye: Adios; chau
What is your name?: Como se llama?
My name is …: Me llamo; mi nombre es …
Pleasure to meet you. Mucho gusto.
How are you: Como esta (for a less familiar person); Como estas (for a more familiar person); Como esta usted (for a formal situation or older person)
Where are you from: De donde viene
I’m from …: Soy de …
See you later: Hasta luego.
See you tomorrow: Hasta ma­nana

Almost-Free Words

Important: Importante
Interesting: Interesante
Perfect: Perfecto
Excellent: Excellente

Exclamations

Thank you very much: Muchas gracias
You’re welcome: De nada
Execuse Me: Disculpe; perdoname; con permiso
Goodness: Caramba
Please: Por favor
I’m sorry: Lo siento
Forgive me: Disculpe
Help me: Ayudame
Danger: Peligro
Forbidden: Prohibito
No smoking: No se fuma
Fire: Fuego; incendio
Emergency: Emergencia
Hurry up: Appurase; rapido
For sale: Se vende
For rent: Se alguila
Look: Mira
Stop: Pare
Watch out: Cuidado
That’s fine: Esta bien
Go away: Dejeme
Bienvenido: Welcome
Oops: Opa (an expression from Greek)
True: Verdad
Of course: Por supresto
It’s okay/don’t worry about it: Tranquila; no se preculpe
Are you sure: Seguro
What do you mean: Como
How do you say: Como se dice
At what time: A que hora
Qual es: Which is it

Small Words

Me, I—mi, yo
You—tu (familiar) usted
They, them; ellos o ellas
This—-esta
That—este
Now—ahora
Because—por que
But—pero
For—para
To—a
Actually—-En verdad
The—la, e, los, las (depending on gender)
In—por, en
We/us—nosotrous
a—un, una
never—nunca
only—solo
alone—solamente
maybe—quisas o tal vez
Equal—iqual
Without—sin
She-he—-ella, el
Their—su
Her’s/his.—la , le
Your—tu (familiar form)
Other—otra
Also—tambien
Yes/no —si y no (shaking one finger is the most common form of no in South America—the index finger)
Therefore—por lo tanto
Then—entonces
Of the —del
Per—por
Like/similar to—paracido
Here—(different words used depending on distance aqui, aji, alla)
Together —-conmigo, contigo (familiar)
Quite—bastante

Verbs

To be—Ser (permanent): soy, son, es; estar (less permanent): estoy, esta
To do—hacer…hago, hace
To feel—Sentir sineto , sienta
To be there—hay
To want—querer, quiero, quiere, quieres
To like—Gusta, me gusto, se gusta
To go (irregular verb) voy, vas, viene,
To live—vivir—vivo, vives, viva
To eat—comer como, comes, come
To drink—For non-alcoholic beverages: Tomar: tomo, tomes, tome; For alcohol: Beber …bebo, bebes, bebe
To cost—cuesta
To carry/transport—Llevar
To Exit—salida( noun)
To Arrive:—Llegar, llego, llegas, llega
To park: Estacionar
To Wait: Esperar, espero, espero, esperamos
To speak: Hablar, hablo, hables, habla
To say—digo, dices, dice
To stay put—quedar, quedense (command form)
To Help—ayudar, ayudo, ayudas, ayuda
To be able/capable—Puedar, puedo, puedes, puede
To understand—entender entiendo, entiendes, entiende
To comprehend—Comprender, comprendo, comprendes, comprende
To Hope—Esperar, espero, esperes, espere
To know/be acquainted with (person) Conocer, conozco, conoces, conoce
To know (facts) Saber, se, sabes, sabe
To charge/exchange—Cambiar, cambio,
To travel—viajer, viajo, viege
To close—Cierrar
to find—encountrar
to wash—lavar, lavo (clothes)
to clean—limpiar, limpio,
to buy—comprar, compro, ustead compra
to sit—sentar
to smoke—fumar
to take—tomer
to walk—cambiar-=–cambio, cambias, cambia
to search for—buscar, busco, buscas, busca
to see—ver veo, ve
To give—dar, doy, da
To pay—pagar, pago, paga
To sign—firmar, firmo, firme
To need—necesitar, necesito, necesita
To cook—cocinar cocino, cocina
To reserve—reservar,
To confirm—confirmar
Include—incluye
To take a photo—sacrar una foto
To Call—llamar, llamo
Prohibitied—prohibito
To accept—acceptar, acepto
To sleep—dormir,duermo,duerma
To work—trabajar, trabajo, trabaja
To think—pensar, penso
To believer—creer, creo, cree
To stop—parar
To return—volver
To sell—vender,vendo, vende
To exit—salir, salgo
To come—venior, vegno, viene
To lose—perder, pierdo, pierde
To win—ganar, gano, unstead gana
To study—estudiar, studio
To dance—baillar, bailo, bailas
To sing—cantar, canto, canta
To play—jugar..juego, juega
To hate—odiar
To love—-amar, encantar, encanto, encanta

Descriptions

Large—grande,
Small—pequeno
Afraid—austado
Fast—rapido
Slow—despacio o despacito
Good—bueno, bien
Bad—mal, malo
Pretty—bonita
Handsome—guapo (word also means hard working in some contexts)
Fat—gordo
Thin—flaco
Tall—alto
Short—corto
Open—abierto
Closed—cerrado
Personal—personal
Better—mejor
Best—primer
Hot—caliente (refers to heat, piquante refers to spicy)
Cold—frio
Exact—exacto
Special—especial
The same—mismo
Different—differente
Cheap—burato
Expensive—carro
Necessary—necesito (this is a verb, not an adjective) Necesito eso, or necesita eso (you need this)
Not necessary—no necesito
Joven—young
Difficult—dificil
Easy—facil
Modern—moderna
Old—viejo
Classic—classico
Weak—debil
Strong—fuerte
Oldest—mejor
Youngest—menor
Ready—listo
Light—ligero
Heavy—pesada
Perfect—perfecto
Excellent—excelente
Private—privado
Stupid—estupido
Smart—intelligente
Late—tarde
New—nuevo
Logical—logico
Strange/weird—extrano
Interesting—interesante
Wet—mojado
Dry—seca
Second hand—segundo
Busy—ocupado
Quiet—tranquilo
Dangerous—peligro
Safe—seguro
Available—disparsible
Tired—cansado
Broken—roto
Important—importante
Sure—seguro
Worried—preoccupado
Fun—divertito
Happy—felix
Sad—triste
Shy—-timido
Often—frequentamente

People and Animals

Grandfather—abuelo
Gandmogther—abuela
Father—padre
Mother—madre
Secretary—secretaria
Waiter—amarero
Miss—senorita
Mister—senior
Mrs—senora
Family—familia
Relative—familiares
Police—policia
Military—gendarmo
Everyone—todos las personas
No on—nadia
Person—persona
Boy—nino
Girl—nina
Children—ninas, ninos
Baby—bebe
Husband—espouso
Wife—espousa
Girlfriend—novia
Boyfriend—novio
Dog—perro
Cat—gato
Cousins—primos
Nieces/nephews—sobrainas,sobrinos
Uncle/aunt—tio, tia
Men/man– hombres, hombre
Women/woman—mujeres
Daughters—hijas

Things

TV—television
Photo—foto
Photographer—fotographia
Photocopy—fotocopia
Clothes—-ropa
Something—algo
Thing—cosa
Book—libro
Pair of glasses—lentes
Possession—posesion
Watch—reloj
Parts—partalores, partes
Computer—computadora
Shirts—camisas
Makeup—machichoa
Jeans—jeans
Purse—carteras
Key—llave
Toilets—servicios
Garbage cans—basero
Bag—bolsa
Light—luz
Powder—polvo
Gift—regalo
Repellant—repellente
Everything—qualquier cosa

Numbers

One—uno
Two—dos
Three—tres
Four—quatro
Five—cinco
Six—seis
Seven—siete
Eight—ocho
Nine—nueve
10—diaz
11—once
12—doce
13—trese
14—catorce
15—quince
16—dieceseis
17—diecesiete
18—dieceocho
19 —diecenueve
20 —viente
21…vienteuno
30—triente
31—trienteuno
40—quarenta
41—quarentauno
50—cincuenta
51—cicuentauno
60—sesenta
70—setebta
80 —ochenta
90—noventa
100—cien
1000—mil
1 million—un million
101—cineto uno
900—noveciento
1100—mil cien
1300 mil trecientos
200—doscientos
300—trescientos
400—cuatrocientos
500—quiencientos
600—seiscientos
700—setecientos
800—ochocientos

Days and Months

Sunday—domingo
Monday—lunes
Tuesday—martes
Wednesday—miercoles
Thursday—jueves
Friday—viernes
Saturday—sabad
January—Enero
February—Febuero
March—Marzo
April—Abril
May—Mayo
June—unio
July—Julio
August—Agosto
September—Septiembre
October—Octubre
November—Noviembre
December—Deciembre

Question Words

What—que
What is it—que es esto
Where —donde esta
How much—cuanto?
Who—quien
Who is it?—quien es
Which—cual
How—como
Why—por que
Why not—por que no
What time is it? Que hora es?

Colors

Black—negro
White—blanco
Blue—azul
Red—rojo
Yellow—amarillo
Green—verde (careful in using this description, though: some things that are green are considered dirty, i.e. pornography or a “green” magazine)
Pink—rosado
Purple—purpuereo
Orange—naranja

Places

Museum—museo
Bookstore—libroria
Bakery—panaderia
Department store—almacia
Country—campo (refers to terrain/geography)
City—ciudad
Home—casa
Exchange store—casa de cambio
Address—direction
Movies—cine
Restaurant—ristorante
Parking lot—estacionamonte
Café—cafeteria
Bar—taberna
Bank—banko
Hotel—hotel
Hostess—hostel
Room—cuarto
Bathroom—bano
Bus stop—parade de autobus
Entrance—entrada
Exit—salida
Supermarket—supermercados
Mall—cinto commercial
Shoe store—zapateria
Hospital—hospital
Police station—comisaria
Post office—el correo
Pharmacy—farmacia
Embassy—embajada
Place—lugar, parte, locale
School—escuela secendaria (secondary school); escuela escuela primaria (grade school)
Building—edificio

Body Parts

Body—cuerpo
Face—cara
Eyes—ojos
Nose—nariz
Mouth—boca
Hands—manos
Arms—armas
Legs—piernas
Feet—pies
Stomach—estomago
Hair—cabello
Skin—piel
Head—cabeza

Foods and Drinks

Hungry—hambre
Thirsty—sed
Food—comida
To eat—comer
Drink –beber o tomar
Coffee—café
Milk—leche
Cream—crema
Water—aqua
Ice—hielo
Miner water—aqua mineral
Sugar—azucar
Tea—te
Soft drink—gaseosa
Bottle of wine—una botella de vino
Red/white wine—tino /blanco vino
Salt—sal
Pepper—pimiento
Mustard—mostaza
Oil—accete
Vinegar—vinagre
Garlic—ajo
Soup—sopa
Noodles—fideos
Chicken—pollo
Meat—carne
Vegetables—verduras
Fruit—fruitas
Seaford—mariscos
Fish—pescado
Cold veggie soup—gazpacho
Banana—banana
Orange—naranja
Apple—manzana
Tangerine—mandarina
Pineapple—pina o anana
Mango—mango
Avocado—aquacate
Onion—cebolla
Turkey—pabo
Tomato—tomato
Sausages—chorizo
Ham—jamon
Rice—arroz
Corn—maiz
Beans—frijoles
Juice—jugo
Lemonade—limonada
Cider—cidra
Flour—harina
Bread—-pan
Ice cream—helado
Chocolate—chocolate
Vanilla—vanilla
Strawberry—fresa
Pastry—pastel
Cookies—galletas
Custard—flan
Milk shake—batido de leche
Espresso—un expreso
Cheese—queso
Eggs—huevos
Butter—mantequilla o Manteca
Margarine—margarina
Whisky—whiskey
Beer—cerveza
Alcohol—alcohol
Tuna—atun
Lobster—langusta
Sardines—sardines
Salmon—salmon
Bacon–tocino
Broth—caldo
Stew—guiso
Steak—chursasco, carne
BBQ—churrasco , churro
Tenderloin—tourneados
Roast beef—rosbef
Pork—cerdo
Toast—tostada
Grilled—parrilla
Baker—Horneado,
Mashed potatoes—pueredo papas
Potatoes—papas (careful to use las papas because the word is feminine. El Papa refers to the pope)
French Fries—papas fritas
Chicken breast—suprema de pollo
Salami—salarme
Breakfast—desayuno
Lunch—almuerzo
Soysauce—salsa d soya
Liquids—liquidos
Fry—frita
Grill—parilla
Salad—ensalada

Restaurant Words

Plate—un plato
Cup—una taza/copa
Glass—vaso
Teaspoon—una cuchariva
Spoon—cuchara
Fork—tenedor
Knkife—cuchillo
A can —una lata
Box—una lajo
A jar—un pomo
Menu—la carta
What is today’s special?—Cual es el plato del dia
Reservation—reservacion
Table—mesa
I’dlike to order—quisiera pedar
Bill—-la cuenta
Fast to go—comida para llevar
Fast food—comida rapida

Directions

Where/there—aqui, aji
Here is—aqui tiene
Right—derecha
Left—izquierda
Straight—derecho
One block—una cuadrenta
Turn—gire
Corner—ciquina
Opposite from—frenta a
Next to—junto a
In Front—frente
In back—al antes
Everywhere—en todas partes
No where—ninguna parte
Far—lejos
Close—cerca
North—norte
South—sur
East—este
West—oeste
Highway—carretera
Lost—perdido
Upstairs—arriba
Downstairs—abajo
Separate—aparte
Together—contigo,conmigo

Times

Time—tiempo
Hour—hora
Day—dia
Week—semana
Month—la mesa
Year—ano
Today—hoy
Evening/night—noche
First—primero
Second—segundo
Third—tercero
Last—ultimo
Morning—la manana
Yesterday—ayer
Tomorrow—manana
Before—antes
After—despues
Later—despues, lluego
Earlier—antes
Every day—todos las dias
Always—siempre
Never—nunca
1:00—una hora
1;15—la una y quince/cuarta
1:30—uno y media
1:45—cuarto al dos
1:01—la una y una
Date—fecha
The end—el final
Finished—finis

Amounts

More—mas
Less—menos
All—todo
Some—unos
None—nada
That’s all—eso es todo
Kilogram—kilo
Half kilo—medio kelo
Dozen—docena
Approximately—approximente
A bit of—un poco de
Number—numero
Single—individual
Double—doble
Too much/too many—demasiado
Not enough—no bastante
Enough—bastante
Many/much—mucho
Very—muy
A little—poco, poquito

Money Words

Money—dinero
Dollars—dolares
Travelers checks—chequs de viajero
Exchange rate—cambio
Commission—interes
Fee—tarrif
Bills—billetas
Small change—suelto
Signature—la firma
The payment—le debo
Credit card—tarjeta de credito
Cheap—barrata
Price—precio
Discount—discuento
ATM—el cajero

Nature Words

Sun—soil
Trees—arbol
Sky—cielo
Sea—mar
Mountains—montanas
River—rio
Lake—lago
Beach—playa
View—vista
Rain—lluevia
Tortoise—tortuga
Animals—animales
Cockroach—cucaracha
Mosquito—los mosquitos

Medical Words

Medicine—medicina
Doctor—-El Doctor
Ambulance—ambulancia
Nurse—enferma
What’s wrong>–Que le pasa
I’m sick—Me siento enfermo
Headache—dolor de la cabeza
Flu—la gripe
It hurts here—me dula aqui
I feel dizzy—tengo mareos nauseas
Pregnant—embarazada
Pain—dolor
Stomach ache—dolor to estomacho
Backache—dolor de espalda
I feel—siento
Diarrhea—diarrhea
Antibiotics—antibioticsos
Allergic—alergico
Vaccinated—vacundo (a)

Travel Words

Passport—passaporte
Documents—documentes
Bag—bolsa
Vacation—vacaciones
Suitcases—maletas
Business trip—viaje de negocios
Baggage cart—carnto para maletas
Room—cuarto, habitacion
Single bed—habatacion con una sola cama
Reservation—reserve
Shower—ducha
Private bath—bano privado
Oceanview—vista del mar
Motocycle—moto
Taxi—taxi
Bus—autobus
Car—auto, coche
Truck—camion
Station—estacion
Ticket—boleta, pasaje
Roadmap—mapa de carreteras, plano de ciudad
Boat—boats,
Port—puerto
Cabin—camarote
Subway—metro
One-way ticket—billete de ida
Round-trip ticket—billete de y vuelta
Departure—partida
Arrival—llegada
Tourism/tourist—turismo, turista

Miscellaneous Words

American—nortemaricano(a)
Englis—ingles
Spanish0—espanol
Grammatical—gramatica
Meaning—signfico
Questions—preguntas
One more time—ulta vez
Femine—feminia
Information—informacion
Life—vida
County –pais (refers to actual country, not a general description)
Age—edad
Word—palabra
World—mundo
Death—muerte
Race—carrera
Competition—competencia
Party—fiesta
Free-libre
Game—juego
Holiday—fiesta
Vacation—vacaciones
Power—poder
Religion—religion
Catholic—catholico
Protestant—protestante
Drama—drama
Information—informacion
Friendship—amistad

“The Spanish Backyard” Story and Game

Harriet and Toby were just regular kids, living in just a regular house. Still, they had what many people don’t: they had a wonderful backyard.

Sometimes their yard was a wide, deep ocean. Other times it was a space station. But Harriet and Toby’s favorite times of all were when the yard became a magical kingdom far away, where anything they spoke in Spanish appeared.

The catch: they had to speak the sentence properly three times in a row.

One day, Harriet and Toby were hungry. They were waiting for their parents to finish cooking a large meal. So, they decided to make food appear in their yard–every kind of food they could imagine.

What do you think Harriet and Toby asked for? What would you want to make appear?

Note to teachers: Here, have your students make sentences with the word list you’re working on currently. Change the scenario to fit the types of words you want to practice. Each time the student gets the sentence right, draw what they said or say, “Look! It’s a …”

Harriet and Toby continued playing The Spanish Backyard until the sun was all the way down.

You’ve heard the term “music appreciation.” While appreciation classes vary widely, they usually cover a historical overview of the subject, a sampling of the subject in question, plus a smattering of basic terms and technical knowledge–exactly the sort of overview this book seeks to offer. (Samplings can be found in the Resources section of this book.)

ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE: MUSIC

Composition: A unified and distinct piece of music that is typically written in musical notation

Symphony: A large-scale musical composition typically written for a full orchestra

Waltz: A type of dance and a musical composition written in triple meter, typically in a 3/4 time signature

Opera: A stage drama set to orchestral music

Orchestra: A large group of musicians playing together on a variety of instruments, usually representing all four instrument families

Woodwind instruments: Instruments made of wood whose sounds come from the player’s vibrating breath as it moves through it. Woodwind vibrations are caused by a reed in the instrument.

Stringed instruments: Instruments whose sounds come from the movement of strings

Brass instruments: Instrument made of brass whose sounds come from the player’s vibrating breath as it moves through it. Brass instrument vibrations are caused by the player’s lips.

Percussion instruments: Instruments whose sounds come from a player hitting, scraping or shaking it Note that a piano is both a wind and a percussion instrument.

The four main vocal ranges from highest to lowest: Soprano, alto, tenor and bass

Octave: The collection of notes between two successive notes of a kind (e.g. the notes between middle C and the C following it). Each octave is double the frequency of the one below it in the scale.

Scale: The collection of notes that make up one or more octaves in the same key

Key: The use of scale in actual music, named for its first note. Most musical pieces are produced in a single key, with all of their notes coming from that key’s notes.

Note: A notation representing the pitch and duration of a musical sound. There are four types: whole, half, quarter, and eighth. Their pitch is shown by their placement on the scale shown in the sheet music.

Tone: A sound produced due to a single frequency

Pitch: A note’s perceived sound frequency, which might be slightly higher or lower than its tone

Flat: A lowering of a note’s pitch by a semitone

Sharp: A raising of a note’s pitch by a semitone

Rhythm: Music’s pattern in time

Beat: A individual unit of time that, with others, forms a rhythm; the basic unit of measurement of a rhythm

Tempo: The overall speed of a piece of music

Harmony: The sound of two or more notes heard simultaneously

Resonance: The amplification or expansion of a sound

Timbre: A subjective description of a sound’s quality or uniqueness; the various qualities of a sound that make it recognizable. For example, Whitney Houston’s voice is different from Bette Midler’s voice due to many variations in smoothness, roughness, lightness, intensity and more.

Accent: A momentary emphasis or stress on a particular note or rhythmic detail

Crescendo: A growing sound

Forte: A louder, stronger sound

Mezzo: Halfway, as in mezzo forte (half loud) and mezzo soprano

Staccato: A briefer, more detached sound

Legato: A drawn out sound

Reprise: A repeated section

Movement: A segment of a piece of music that is set apart in some way from the rest of the piece. A movement is often performed separately, and named separately, from the larger work.

Aria: A segment of a piece of music that is written for one voice, usually with orchestral accompaniment and set apart in some way from the rest of the piece

Overture: The orchestral introduction to a musical composition. An overture also serves as a piece in its own right.

Coda: A piece’s tail or closing section

Encore: The return to the stage of a performer for an additional, unlisted piece

Virtuoso: A performer of exceptional ability or artistry

Acoustic music: Music that is produced by instruments rather than by electronics

Music synthesizer: A computer-run machine that generates electronic sounds and modifies sound input in a variety of ways

Amplifier/amp: An electronic device that works with a mechanical loudspeaker, turning low voltage signals into higher ones that can be heard over the speakers

Bass speaker/woofer: A loudspeaker designed to produce high voltage low frequency sounds

Prehistoric music: The music of early hominids, who sang, hummed and whistled; made flutes and pipes out of bone; and made percussion instruments out of wood and rocks

Music of ancient times: The music of ancient peoples, who used it for entertainment, celebration and spiritual reasons.The oldest known song, as well as the first known musical notation, was written in cuneiform, indicating the importance of music to early civilizations. Greek music included double pipes, the double-reed aulos, a plucked string instrument, the lyre, mixed-gender choruses and more. Roman music included harps, lyres and trumpets and featured simple melodies without harmony.

Monastery music: The music created by Roman Catholics in monasteries and abbeys during the Middle Ages, which thought of as an exclusive art form and was usually performed for religious purposes. Though the human voice was still central to most works, a wider range of wind, brass and percussion instruments came into use during this time.

Plainchant: A type of religious music in which sacred texts are sung in a monophonic manner with minimal instrumental accompaniment

Gregorian Chant: A more elaborate type of medieval religious chant, possibly developed by Pope Gregory, which is known for the haunting sound of the open, perfect fifth and its move toward polyphony

Polyphony: The use of complex vocal melodies and harmonies

Monophony: The use of simple, single-line melodies without harmony

Renaissance music: A musical style that dominated from approximately 1400 to 1600 and was characterized by polyphony rather than monophony and the use of more instruments than ever before. During this time, opera was created, the four families of instruments were established, and music moved from its place as an exclusive, religion-centered art to its new place as an art of the people, appreciated and created everywhere.

Opera: A form of theatrical art in which singers and orchestras perform a dramatic work. It originated in Italy around 1600 and was at its peak in the mid-1800s.

Baroque music: An ornate musical style that featured multiple simultaneous melodies that came about around 1600 and was at its peak around the mid-1700s. Important Baroque composers include Bach, Handel and Vivaldi.

Classical period music: A sleeker, less ornate, less contrasting musical style characterized by balanced and symmetrical phrases, clear melodies and emotional restraint that began in the mid-1700s until being surpassed by the romantic style in the mid-1800s. Many Classical pieces feature the early piano instead of the harpsichord, which significantly altered their effect. Important Classical composers were Mozart and Beethoven. Mozart was extremely versatile, creating masterful music in every popular genre of his time. Beethoven redefined and refined classical music and bridged the gap between the Classical period and the Romantic period.

Music of the Romantic period: The emotional, dramatic music that arose in the mid-1800s and that was characterized by increased experimentation; contrasting elements; and the use of a larger orchestra. Notable Romantic composers were Tchaikovsky, Schumann, Chopin, Brahms, Verdi and Wagner.

Modern and contemporary music: The music from the year 1900 and beyond, which evolved from two disparate forms, folk and classical, and which often includes choruses and verses, easily singable melodies and a single vocalist. However, it also often incorporates a variety of instruments, complex harmonies and other creative elements, such as electronic sound. Important modern and contemporary musical genres include: country, folk, electronic music, funk, hip hop, jazz, Latin, pop, punk, reggae, rock, metal, soul, R&B, polka, modern classical/instrumental, world, big band and religious music.

The School in a Book curriculum isn’t just for adults. As soon as children can follow a simple plot, they can begin booking it down this list. They can also enjoy adapted versions of many of the books for adults–even the Iliad and the Odyssey. (I also discuss with them many of the simpler concepts in the science lists.)

A few notes on reading to your kids: If you like, just read. Good syntax and rhythm is an education in itself. However, you might want to incorporate reading comprehension into your experience. You can do this by asking your child to summarize the story or to tell you what they think it means. Both of these tasks prepare them for competence in writing, an activity that depends on clear thinking and good organization. Some education professionals say that most college students can’t correctly identify the main points of a given text; don’t let this be your kid. (Older kids need to start outlining texts in writing as soon as they’re ready.)

By the way, shortcut-takers like me can scout out fun video versions of these stories on YouTube and elsewhere on the internet. Sometimes, I cue up five or six and pat myself on the back for providing my young children with such a great educational head start.

ESSENTIAL RESOURCES: CLASSIC CHILDREN’S LITERATURE

Classic Children’s Stories

• Jack and the Beanstalk
• Goldilocks and the Three Bears
• Thumbelina
• Puss in Boots
• The Three Little Pigs
• The Ugly Duckling
• The Little Red Hen
• The Tortoise and the Hare
• The Pied Piper
• Chicken Little
• The Gingerbread Man
• The Owl and the Pussy Cat
• The Happy Prince
• The Blind Man and the Elephant
• Little Boy Blue
• The Snow Queen
• Father Frost
• The Gift of the Magi
• St. George and the Dragon
• King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table
• Anansi the Spider
• Beauty and the Beast
• Sleeping Beauty
• The Little Mermaid
• Briar Rose/Cinderella, Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm (from Grimm’s Fairy Tales)
• The Frog Prince, Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm
• Rapunzel, Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm
• Hansel and Gretel, Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm
• Little Red Riding Hood, Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm
• Tom Thumb, Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm
• The Wolf and Seven Little Goats, Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm
• Snow White and the Seven Dwarves, Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm
• Rumpelstiltskin, Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm
• The Fox and the Grapes, Aesop (from Aesop’s Fables)
• The Ant and the Grasshopper, Aesop (from Aesop’s Fables)
• The Goose That Laid the Golden Eggs, Aesop (from Aesop’s Fables)
• The Wolf in Sheep’s Clothing, Aesop (from Aesop’s Fables)
• The Lion and the Mouse, Aesop (from Aesop’s Fables)
• The City Mouse and the Country Mouse, Aesop (from Aesop’s Fables)
• The Three Billy Goats Gruff, Aesop (from Aesop’s Fables)
• The Emperor’s New Clothes, Hans Christian Andersen (from Anderson’s Fairy Tales)
• The Princess and the Pea, Hans Christian Andersen (from Anderson’s Fairy Tales)
• The Little Match Girl, Hans Christian Andersen (from Anderson’s Fairy Tales)
• How the Leopard Got His Spots, Rudyard Kipling (from Just So Stories)
• How the Camel Got His Hump, Rudyard Kipling (from Just So Stories)
• Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves, Richard Alan Burton (from The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night)
• Aladdin and the Wonderful Lamp, Richard Alan Burton (from The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night)
• Little Bo-Peep, Ba Ba Black Sheep, Hickory Dickory Dock, Hey Diddle Diddle, Jack and Jill and Humpty Dumpty, from Mother Goose’s Nursery Rhymes
• Other nursery rhymes, including: Ring Around the Rosey; Pat-a-Cake; Star Light, Star Bright; This Little Piggy Went to Market; and Peter Piper

Classic Children’s Books

• The Tale of Peter Rabbit, Beatrix Potter
• The Little Engine that Could, Watty Piper
• The Velveteen Rabbit, Margery Willems
• Where the Wild Things Are, Maurice Sendak
• Goodnight, Moon, Margaret Wise Brown
• The Very Hungry Caterpillar, Eric Carle
• Winnie-the-Pooh, A. A. Milne
• Harold and the Purple Crayon, Crockett Johnson
• A House is a House for Me, Mary Ann Hoberman
• We’re Going on a Bear Hunt, Michael Rosen and Helen Oxenbury
• Madeline, Ludwig Bemelmans
• Are You My Mother?, P.D. Eastman
• The Red Balloon, Albert Lamorisse
• Tikki Tikki Tembo, Arlene Mosel
• Alexander and the Terrible, Horrible, No Good, Very Bad Day, Judith Viorst
• Amelia Bedelia, Peggy Parish
• Corduroy, Don Freeman
• Curious George, H.A. Rey
• Don’t Let the Pigeon Drive the Bus!, Mo Willems
• Frog and Toad Together, Arnold Lobel
• Frog and Toad Are Friends, Arnold Lobel
• Miss Nelson Is Back, Harry Allard
• Miss Nelson Is Missing, Harry Allard
• Everybody Needs a Rock, Byrd Baylor
• Once There Were Giants, Martin Waddell and Penny Dale
• The Monster at the End of This Book, Jon Stone and Michael Smollin
• The Marshmallow Incident, Judi Barrett and Ron Barrett
• Georgie and the Robbers, Robert Bright
• Each Peach Pear Plum, Janet and Allan Ahlberg
• This Moose Belongs to Me, Oliver Jeffers
• Alexander, Who Used to Be Rich Last Sunday, Judith Viorst and Ray Cruz
• Guess How Much I Love You, Sam McBratney
• Brown Bear, Brown Bear, What Do You See?, Bill Martin, Jr. and Eric Carle
• Love You Forever, Robert Munsch and Sheila McGraw
• The Cat in the Hat, Dr. Seuss
• How the Grinch Stole Christmas, Dr. Seuss
• The Lorax, Dr. Seuss
• Green Eggs and Ham, Dr. Seuss
• Oh, The Places You’ll Go, Dr. Seuss
• Where the Sidewalk Ends, Shel Silverstein
• The Magic School Bus series, Joanna Cole and Bruce Degen

Classic Middle Grade Books

• The Wrinkle In Time series, Madeleine L’Engle
• The Harry Potter series, J.K. Rowling
• The Encyclopedia Brown series, Donald J. Sobol
• The Ramona series, Beverly Cleary
• The Nancy Drew series
• The Anne of Green Gables series, Lucy Maud Montgomery
• The Chronicles of Avonlea series, Lucy Maud Montgomery
• The Chronicles of Narnia series, C.S. Lewis
• A Christmas Carol, Charles Dickens
• Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland, Lewis Carroll
• Through the Looking Glass, Lewis Carroll
• Black Beauty, Anna Sewell
• Charlotte’s Web, E.B. White
• Heidi, Johanna Spyri
• Peter Pan, James Barrie
• Peter and Wendy, James Barrie
• Pinocchio, Carlo Collodi
• Pipi Longstocking, Astrid Lindgren
• The Little Prince, Antoine de Saint-Exupery
• The Little House on the Prairie, Laura Ingalls Wilder
• The Secret Garden, Frances Hodgson Burnett
• The Wind in the Willows, Kenneth Grahame
• Stuart Little, E.B. White
• The Trumpet of the Swans, E.B. White
• The Boys’ Book of Survival, Guy Campbell
• The Dangerous Book for Boys, Conn and Hal Iggulden
• The Daring Book for Girls, Andrea J. Buchanan and Miriam Peskowitz
• Jacob Have I Loved, Katherine Patterson
• Bridge to Terabithia, Katherine Patterson
• Where the Red Fern Grows, Wilson Rawls
• Summer of the Monkeys, Wilson Rawls
• Then Again, Maybe I Won’t, Judy Blume
• Starring Sally J. Freedman as Herself, Judy Blume
• Are You There, God? It’s Me, Margaret, Judy Blume
• Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, Roald Dahl
• James and the Giant Peach, Roald Dahl
• Matilda, Roald Dahl
• The Bears’ House, Marilyn Sachs
• The Yearling, Marjorie Rawlings
• The Jungle Book, Rudyard Kipling

I am not a movie buff. Still, I don’t want to miss out on the shows and films that even today, inform our shared cultural conversation. There’s a lot to learn here about love, hope and coming of age–and about writing an awesome screenplay, too.

ESSENTIAL RESOURCES: CLASSIC FILMS

Classic Children’s Films, Shows and Musicals

• The Wizard of Oz (1930s)
• Snow White (1930s)
• Bambi (1940s)
• Pinocchio (1940s)
• Dumbo (1940s)
• Old Yeller (1950s)
• Sleeping Beauty (1950s)
• Cinderella (1950s)
• Alice in Wonderland (1950s)
• Winnie the Pooh and the Honey Tree (1960s)
• The Jungle Book (1960s)
• Charlotte’s Web (1970s)
• The Muppet Movie (1970s)
• Benji (1970s)
• Charlie and the Chocolate Factory (1970s)
• The Many Adventures of Winnie the Pooh (1970s)
• Star Wars: A New Hope (George Lucas, 1970s)
• Star Wars: The Empire Strikes Back (George Lucas, 1980s)
• Star Wars: Return of the Jedi (George Lucas, 1980s)
• E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (Steven Spielburg, 1980s)
• Labyrinth (Jim Henson, 1980s)
• The Neverending Story (1980s)
• Goonies (1980s)
• The Karate Kid (1980s)
• Ghostbusters (1980s)
• Anne of Green Gables (series) (1980s)
• Anne of Avonlea (series) (1980s)
• Indiana Jones and the Raiders of the Lost Ark (Steven Spielburg, 1980s)
• Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom (Steven Spielburg, 1980s)
• Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade (Steven Spielburg, 1980s)
• My Neighbor Totoro (1980s)
• Return to Oz (1980s)
• Beauty and the Beast (1990s)
• The Little Mermaid (1990s)
• The Lion King (1990s)
• Aladdin (1990s)
• Home Alone (1990s)
• Home Alone 2: Lost in New York (1990s)
• The Sandlot (1990s)
• The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (2000s)
• The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (2000s)
• The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2000s)
• Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone (2000s)
• Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets (2000s)
• Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire (2000s)
• The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe (2000s)
• The Chronicles of Narnia: Prince Caspian (2000s)
• The Chronicles of Narnia: The Voyage of the Dawn Treader (2010s)
• Frozen (2010s)
• Tangled (2010s)

Classic Musicals

• An American in Paris (1920s)
• Singin’ in the Rain (1950s)
• Oklahoma! (1950s)
• White Christmas (1950s)
• Annie Get Your Gun (1950s)
• Guys and Dolls (1950s)
• South Pacific (1950s)
• Seven Brides for Seven Brothers (1950s)
• The King and I (1950s)
• Calamity Jane (1950s)
• West Side Story (1960s)
• Pollyanna (1960s)
• Oliver! (1960s)
• Cabaret (1960s)
• Dr. Dolittle (1960s)
• The Sound of Music (1960s)
• Babes in Toyland (1960s)
• The Music Man (1960s)
• Breakfast at Tiffany’s (1960s)
• My Fair Lady (1960s)
• Fiddler on the Roof (1970s)
• Grease (1970s)
• Godspell (1970s)
• Jesus Christ, Superstar (1970s)
• Hair (1970s)
• The Rocky Horror Picture Show (1970s)
• Annie (1980s)
• Footloose (1980s)
• Little Shop of Horrors (1980s)
• Cats (1990s)
• Mary Poppins

Classic Christmas Films

• It’s a Wonderful Life (Frank Capra, 1940s)
• Miracle on 34th Street (1940s)
• A Christmas Carol (1950s)
• Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer (1960s)
• Frosty the Snowman (1960s)
• How the Grinch Stole Christmas (1960s)
• A Charlie Brown Christmas (1960s)
• A Christmas Story (1980s)
• National Lampoon’s Christmas Vacation (1980s)
• The Muppet Christmas Carol (1990s)

Classic Films for Older Kids and Adults

• The Arrival of a Train (1890s)
• Nanook of the North (1920s)
• Man with a Movie Camera (1920s)
• Night Mail (1930s)
• Frankenstein (1930s)
• M (Fritz Lang, 1930s)
• Triumph of the Will (1930s)
• You Can’t Take It With You (Frank Capra, 1930s)
• It Happened One Night (Frank Capra, 1930s)
• Mutiny on the Bounty (Frank Lloyd, 1930s)
• The Lady Vanishes (Alfred Hitchcock, 1930s)
• The Thirty-Nine Steps (Alfred Hitchcock, 1930s)
• The Bells of St. Mary’s (1940s)
• How Green is My Valley (1940s)
• Casablanca (1940s)
• National Velvet (1940s)
• From Here to Eternity (1950s)
• Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (1950s)
• Love is a Many-Splendored Thing (1950s)
• Rebel Without a Cause (1950s)
• Roman Holiday (1950s)
• The African Queen (1950s)
• The Silent World (1950s)
• The Three Faces of Eve (1950s)
• Ben-Hur (1950s)
• Night and Fog (1950s)
• The Train (1960s)
• Citizen Kane (Orson Welles, 1940s)
• A Face in the Crowd (Elia Kazan, 1950s)
• East of Eden (Elia Kazan, 1950s)
• On the Waterfront (Elia Kazan, 1950s)
• Wild Strawberries (Ingmar Bergman, 1950s)
• North by Northwest (Alfred Hitchcock, 1950s)
• Rear Window (Alfred Hitchcock, 1950s)
• Strangers on a Train (Alfred Hitchcock, 1950s)
• Suspicion! (Alfred Hitchcock, 1940s)
• The Man Who Knew Too Much (Alfred Hitchcock, 1950s)
• To Catch a Thief (Alfred Hitchcock, 1950s)
• Vertigo (Alfred Hitchcock, 1950s)
• The Lord of the Flies (1960s)
• Those Magnificent Men in Their Flying Machines (1960s)
• What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? (1960s)
• The Sorrow and the Pity (1960s)
• Titicut Follies (1960s)
• Salesman (1960s)
• The Man Who Shot Liberty Vallance (1960s)
• 8 ½ (Federico Fellini, 1960s)
• Breakfast at Tiffany’s (1960s)
• How the West Was Won (1960s)
• Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid (1960s)
• Doctor Zhivago (1960s)
• Night of the Living Dead (1960s)
• Planet of the Apes (1960s)
• The Graduate (1960s)
• Splendor in the Grass (Elia Kazan, 1960s)
• The Absent-Minded Professor (1960s)
• Hannah and Her Sisters (Woody Allan, 1960s)
• Il Dolce Vita (Federico Fellini, 1960s)
• Lolita (Stanley Kubrick, 1960s)
• The Birds (Alfred Hitchcock, 1960s)
• Psycho (Alfred Hitchcock, 1960)
• Roots (series) (1970s)
• Saturday Night Fever (1970s)
• The Exorcist (1970s)
• Summer of My German Soldier (1970s)
• Saturday Night Fever (1970s)
• Brother Sun, Sister Moon (1970s)
• Monty Python and the Holy Grail (1970s)
• Annie Hall (Woody Allen, 1970s)
• Orchestra Rehearsal (Federico Fellini, 1970s)
• Freaky Friday (1970s)
• Taxi Driver (Martin Scorsese, 1970s)
• A Clockwork Orange (Stanley Kubrick, 1970s)
• Cries and Whispers (Ingmar Bergman, 1970s)
• Big (1980s)
• Airplane! (1980s)
• The Princess Bride (1980s)
• Babette’s Feast (1980s)
• Sophie’s Choice (1980s)
• Das Boot/The Boat (1980s)
• Zelig (Woody Allen, 1980s)
• The Atomic Cafe (1980s)
• The Times of Harvey Milk (1980s)
• Clue (1980s)
• Parenthood (1980s)
• Field of Dreams (1980s)
• Moonstruck (1980s)
• Platoon (Oliver Stone, 1980s)
• Radio Days (Woody Allen, 1980s)
• Crimes and Misdemeanors (Woody Allen, 1980s)
• Eat, Drink, Man, Woman (1990s)
• Fight Club (1990s)
• Life Is Beautiful (1990s)
• What’s Eating Gilbert Grape? (1990s)
• Edward Scissorhands (1990s)
• American Beauty (1990s)
• Raise the Red Lantern (1990s)
• Following (1990s)
• To Live (1990s)
• True Romance (1990s)
• The Last Days of Disco (1990s)
• Pleasantville (1990s)
• The Truman Show (1990s)
• Naked Lunch (1990s)
• Gummo (1990s)
• High Art (1990s)
• Run Lola Run (1990s)
• Man on the Moon (1990s)
• Pi (1990s)
• Hoop Dreams (1990s)
• Being John Malcovich (Spike Jonze, 1990s)
• Barton Fink (Joes and Ethan Coen, 1990s)
• Wild at Heart (David Lynch, 1990s)
• Lost Highway (David Lynch, 1990s)
• Four Rooms (Quentin Terantino, 1990s)
• Jackie Brown (Quentin Terantino, 1990s)
• Pulp Fiction (Quentin Terantino, 1990s)
• Reservoir Dogs (Quentin Terantino, 1990s)
• Primer (2000s)
• Memento (2000s)
• Requiem for a Dream (2000s)
• A Scanner Darkly (2000s)
• American Psycho (2000s)
• American Splendour (2000s)
• Secretary (2000s)
• Swimming Pool (2000s)
• The Princess and the Warrior (2000s)
• Igby Goes Down (2000s)
• The Lives of Others (2000s)
• Mulholland Drive (David Lynch, 2000s)
• Kill Bill Volume I & II (Quentin Terantino, 2000s)
• Don’t Look Up (2020s)

Additional Recommended Films: Documentaries

While the main criteria for the films on these lists is cultural and artistic significance, I also wanted to include movies that aren’t important as such, but that contain interesting, relevant information; little-understood niches; and unique perspectives–which is where the following documentaries come in. Some are socially relevant; most are disturbing; and all are in some way educational.

• 13th
• A Lego Brickumentary
• Amanda Knox
• Being Elmo
• Bowling for Columbine
• Chernobyl (series)
• Cosmos: A Space-Time Odyssey
• Exit Through the Gift Shop
• Food Matters
• Food, Inc.
• King Corn
• Sicko
• Free Solo
• Going Clear
• Herb and Dorothy
• How to Survive a Plague
• Icarus
• Jesus Camp
• Jiro Dreams of Sushi
• March of the Penguins
• The Planet Earth series
• Shirkers
• Sour Grapes
• Spellbound
• The Barkley Marathons
• The Rachel Divide
• Three Identical Strangers
• Through the Wormhole with Morgan Freeman
• Trekkies
• Waiting for Superman
• Pepsi, Where’s My Jet?
• Our Father (series)
• The Real Bling Ring
• Trainwreck
• Bad Vegan (series)
• The Puppetmaster
• The Tinder Swindler
• Seaspiracy
• What the Health
• Athlete A
• Comedians in Cars Getting Coffee (series)
• The Game Changers
• Cowspiracy
• Hope Frozen
• Capturing the Friedmans
• Keep This Between Us (series)
• My Scientology Movie
• The Deep End (series)
• Drunk History (series)
• Intervention (series)
• Catfish
• I Shouldn’t Be Alive (series)
• I Survived (series)

Twelve years of elementary and high school plus extracurricular studies leaves us with a lot of information. Too much information, sometimes. Since we can’t retain everything, our brains have to pick and choose. And sometimes they make pretty bad decisions. We might live with our in-depth understanding of the oboe forever, say, but can’t recall whether Alexander the Great lived before or after the Roman Empire. If we don’t want our most important knowledge areas to fade out, then, we do well to periodically review the basics.

That’s where School in a Book comes in.

For each subject listed below, I’ve written a knowledge checklist of sorts: a collection of essential terms and other information. It’s not a textbook; instead, it’s an overview, a handy guide to help you strengthen your weak points and gain a wider perspective of the topic.

Sample sections are available here. To learn when this complete work becomes available for purchase, subscribe to my blog to the right.

School in a Book Sections

Essential Knowledge: Chemistry

Essential Knowledge: Physics

Essential Knowledge: Astronomy

Essential Knowledge: Biology and Genetics

Essential Knowledge: Botany and Zoology

Essential Knowledge: Anatomy and Medical Science

Essential Knowledge: Geology, Ecology and Meteorology

Essential Knowledge: World History Overview, Prehistory and World History Timeline

Essential Knowledge: History of Europe

Essential Knowledge: History of North, Central and South America

Essential Knowledge: History of Africa

Essential Knowledge: History of the Middle East

Essential Knowledge: History of China

Essential Knowledge: History of Japan

Essential Knowledge: History of Russia

Essential Knowledge: History of India

Essential Knowledge: History of Australia

Essential Knowledge: Geography

Essential Knowledge: Punctuation and Grammar

Essential Knowledge: Literary Analysis and Poetry

Essential Knowledge: Arithmetic and Measurement

Essential Knowledge: Algebra and Geometry

Essential Knowledge: Art and Architecture

Essential Knowledge: Music

Essential Knowledge: American Government

Essential Knowledge: Political Science

Essential Knowledge: Philosophy

Essential Knowledge: Logic and Rhetoric

Essential Knowledge: Psychology

Essential Knowledge: Sociology

Essential Knowledge: Religion and Spirituality

Essential Skills: Writing and Literary Analysis

Essential Skills: Science and History

Essential Skills: Mathematics

Essential Skills: Arts and Crafts

Essential Skills: Physical Education

Essential Skills: Social, Emotional and Life Management

Essential Resources: Classic Literature: Children’s

Essential Resources: Classic Fiction: Older Kids and Adults

Essential Resources: Classic Nonfiction

Essential Resources: Classic Films

Essential Resources: Classic Songs and Musical Artists

Essential Resources: Educational Games and Other Recreational Activities

Bonus Section: Personal Records

Supplemental Sections

I just couldn’t help myself: Here, additional advanced sections to be included in a supplemental edition of this book.

Essential Knowledge: Statistics and Research

Essential Knowledge: Computer Science

Essential Knowledge: Technology

Essential Knowledge: Mandarin Chinese Vocabulary (this section to come)

Essential Knowledge: Spanish Vocabulary (this section to come)

How to Use This Book

Subject-specific suggestions for memorizing and applying the lessons in this book can be found in the brief overviews provided. Here are a few other general tips:

TIP #1: TREAT IT LIKE A CHECKLIST

As you peruse the lists in this book, you will find many facts you already know. This is a good thing. If you have the book in print form, you might want to mark your retained facts as you go. There’s a saying in psychology: “Shrink the change.” The more facts and lists you master, the more encouraged you’ll be to move on to more challenging areas. (Check marking also prevents you from wasting time re-reading old-to-you material.)

TIP #2: YOUTUBE. LOTS OF YOUTUBE.

Almost all of the material in this book is available in multiple forms somewhere on the Internet. Because websites change constantly, linking to recommended Internet resources isn’t necessary or even very helpful. Most terms you search for will yield a wide variety of accurate, well-stated, brief and even entertaining articles, videos and tutorials. No longer under copyright, classic books and stories are freely available as well. When working with my children on these lists, I often find relevant videos on YouTube–one under-ten-minute video per term or story. I queue up five or six in separate tabs, and my kids are fully engaged with free, educational material for an hour.

TIP #3: CREATE YOUR OWN FLASH CARDS.

The most difficult part of this book to write was the history section. Timelines feel natural, yet I avoided this presentation as much as possible since they don’t facilitate memorization. (Question: The year 1789. Answer: ???) Instead, I arranged the information in the same way the other lists are arranged, with recognizable names and other terms followed by their “definitions.” If you can buzz down a list, identifying each of these with your hand covering the explanations, you’ve mastered that section. Better yet, create your own flash cards. The act of writing the information will help you retain a surprising amount of it.

TIP #4: DON’T JUST LEARN IT. MASTER IT.

Unlike many other textbooks, this book has very little filler. Everything here is meant to be both understood and retained. Don’t just read over the definitions to determine whether or not you “get it”; quiz yourself on them. It’s always interesting to notice how much harder it is to bring something back to mind than to simply understand it.

School in a Book Advantages

Finally, since I love lists so much, here’s another one for you: the eight main advantages of this book.

But first, two disadvantages: While much of the information presented here is straightforward and ready to memorize, the Essential Skills and Essential Resources lists require further research, reading and practice. In addition, School in a Book is, unapologetically, a generalist, liberal arts curriculum. It is a straightforward, basic overview of each topic–nothing more. It goes without saying that there is more to life than fractions and the Mayflower, so take these basic concepts and use them to build yourself into a great generalist … then branch off from there in the directions of your choice.

ADVANTAGE #1: IT HELPS YOU BECOME A GENERALIST

Educators love to debate the relative merits of a generalist versus specialist education. My feeling is that life is long and learning is an innate human need; however, humans don’t innately know what they should specialize in. By establishing a wide knowledge base as early as possible, areas of interest present themselves more readily.

ADVANTAGE #2: IT GIVES YOU A FAST OVERVIEW OF A SUBJECT

The book’s biggest advantage, I think, is a hidden one: By reading the entire outline of a topic in one sitting, you’re able to feel, maybe for the first time, that you truly understand it. Here’s a metaphor I like: If a physics textbook is a detailed travel guide to the world of that subject, the School in a Book physics checklist is a physics map. By reading the checklist all at once, you’re able to see the bigger picture: physics has to do with energy, motion, gravity, electricity, magnetism, light, sound and nuclear forces. Understanding this builds confidence as well as competence.

ADVANTAGE #3: IT LISTS ONLY THE ESSENTIALS

School in a Book won’t waste your time. Enough said.

ADVANTAGE #4: IT AIDS MEMORIZATION

I know, I know: memorization is out of fashion these days. But let’s not take our emphasis on critical thinking and creativity too far. If thinking skills are the toolkit, facts are the raw building materials. It’s impossible to arrange an interesting proposal, plan, article or analysis–or even have a fluent conversation on a topic–without the facts–the building blocks–in hand. (Okay, it’s possible, but we all know what that looks like and it isn’t pretty.)

The very best way to use School in a Book is as a tool for memorization. This is the stuff you’ll want to know–to retain–for the many efforts, decisions and conversations to come in your life.

ADVANTAGE #5: IT HELPS YOU FILL IN YOUR KNOWLEDGE GAPS

You might be surprised at how much you don’t know about the world, even if you’ve completed twelve or more years of school. I was. (Okay, that’s not quite true. I knew how badly I needed help.) Our minds don’t always pick and choose well. They might record every word our favorite teachers say, but almost nothing from certain entire textbooks. Here, discover what you missed on the days you slept in, as well as what you forgot.

ADVANTAGE #6: IT ASSISTS WITH COLLEGE PREPARATION

Though this resource purports to be an elementary through high school educational reference text, the checklists were designed to cover 101-level college material (and, in a few cases, levels higher than this). This is because I believe that college 101 classes are generally meant to catch up incoming college students on the subjects they should have learned in high school, but didn’t.

ADVANTAGE #7: IT ORGANIZES ALL YOUR CHECKLISTS IN ONE PLACE

I love organizing. I love brevity, too. Almost in a romantic sort of way. Other books spread out the essential knowledge between pages of description, introduction, images, callouts and the like. School in a Book eschews such inefficient use of space in order to provide extremely easy access to a broad range of information. The book can be used as one large checklist that you work through at your own pace. In addition, lists are organized by type of learning required: Essential Learning, Essential Skills and Essential Resources. When facts, books and skills are all mixed together, the checklists become much harder to work with. Studying facts requires different mental and environmental preparation than does practicing a skill or reading a book.

A LAST WORD

I hope that you find these terms and lists as useful as I have, but if you don’t, wait a few years. By mastering the School in a Book material, you’ve paved the way for an easier high school and college experience. You’ve also obtained a good knowledge foundation that will serve you well your entire adult life.

Don’t believe the rumors: you can be a generalist and a specialist both. Why not? Life is long, and learning is life. Be curious. Be unafraid. Read nonfiction every day. Watch documentaries. Find a passion (or six). Be great.

Oh, and have lots of fun while you’re doing it.

The smaller we feel, the more awe we experience. And who doesn’t love the feeling of awe? The following astronomical terms and ideas will help you converse fluently on the topic of the universe, but do also read The Fabric of the Cosmos by Brian Greene and Steven Hawking’s A Brief History of Time. There’s also a great memoir by Scott Kelly of living on the ISS for a year called Endurance, as well as many excellent space documentaries.

ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE: ASTRONOMY

Space: All of the area outside the earth’s atmosphere, whose temperatures vary from far below freezing (such as areas blocked by planets to the rays of stars) to far above boiling water (such as areas not blocked from the rays of stars)

Universe: All of the billions of galaxies in existence, which are held together by gravity. It is mostly empty space, which is why collisions are infrequent, and is constantly slowly expanding.

Star: A ball of very hot gas in space, which can be white, red, yellow or blue, depending on its surface temperature

Sun: The only star in Earth’s solar system. It is medium-sized: about 100 times the size of Earth and ten times the size of Jupiter. On its surface, it is about 5,500 degrees Celsius.

Planet: A spinning ball of rock and/or gas that travels around a star (or a black hole) in an orbit. Since they are so far away, we can only see a few outside our solar system directly.

Moon: A mini planet that revolves around a planet instead of revolving around a star. The earth’s is dry and dusty with many craters. It takes about 27 days for ours to spin once, and about 27 days for it to orbit once around the earth, which is why it doesn’t seem to be spinning. It is always facing away from us, so we’ve never seen the other side directly (though we have taken photographs). It takes about three days to reach it, depending on its placement relative to the earth in its elliptical orbit.

Solar system: A group of planets revolving around a single star or a group of stars, or a small group of stars revolving around each other. Ours contains one star, eight planets and many asteroids and comets.

Galaxy: A group of solar systems which orbit around each other. Sometimes they cross paths with each other and collide. Many contain millions of stars, and many have a black hole at their center.

Star cluster: A group of stars that forms together

Galaxy cluster: A group of galaxies held together by gravity

Supercluster: A group of galaxy clusters

The eight planets of our solar system, in order from the sun: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune. The closest four are terrestial planets, made of rock, while the further four are gas giants, made primarily of gas. Jupiter is our largest planet while Mercury is our smallest.

The eight phases of Earth’s moon: The views of the earth’s moon from the earth, which change in a 29.5-day cycle. The eight phases are: new (no visible light); waxing crescent (small sliver visible); first quarter (half moon visible); waxing gibbous (mostly visible); full (full moon visible); waning gibbous (mostly visible); third quarter (half moon visible); and waning crescent (small sliver visible).

Orbit: The circular path taken by a planet, moon, star or other celestial body. These can be maintained indefinitely because the gravity that pulls the orbiting object toward another object is balanced by the orbiting object’s momentum, which seeks to keep the orbiting object moving in a straight line. In empty space, friction, drag and other forces do not exist, so the object’s momentum is never lost.

Solar mass: The mass of the sun, which is used as a standard unit of measurement of space bodies

The Milky Way: The name of the galaxy our solar system is in. It is about 100,000 light years across and contains hundreds of billions of stars.

Andromeda: The nearest large galaxy to the Milky Way

The Local Cluster: The galaxy cluster that includes the Milky Way, Andromeda and dozens of other galaxies

One day: The unit of time marking one spin of the earth on its axis, which takes approximately 24 Earth hours. The part of the earth facing the sun has light, and the other doesn’t. It takes 365 days for the earth to orbit around the sun one time.

Light year: The distance light travels in one year (approximately 9.5 trillion kilometers, which is about 300,000,000 meters per second), which is used as a measurement of large distances in space

Solar eclipse: A celestial event during which the sun is entirely obscured from view for a short time due to the path of the moon, which brings it between the earth and the sun

Lunar eclipse: A celestial event during which the moon is mostly obscured from view for a short time due to the path of the Earth, which brings it between the moon and the sun

Asteroid: A piece of rock or metal in space that is larger than a meteoroid and smaller than a moon and revolves around the sun

Meteoroid: A piece of rock or metal in space that is the size of dust, the size of a house or anywhere in-between and revolves around the sun

Meteor: A meteoroid that burns up in a planet’s atmosphere. It is also known as a shooting star.

Meteorite: A meteoroid that hits the surface of a planet

Comet: A ball of dirty ice floating around space. When close enough to the sun, the ice melts partway and the solar wind blows a trail of gas and dust behind it, making a tail.

Nebula: A big cloud of gas and dust that stars are formed in or that formed from an exploded star

Supernova: A very large star that has reached the end of its life (and its supply of gas) and is exploding

Neutron star: The core of a supernova, which is a highly dense, rapidly rotating ball of neutrons

Pulsar: A highly magnetized neutron star that gives off waves (pulses) of radiation

Red Giant: A star that is nearing the end of its life and has swelled up and turned red

White dwarf: A hot, small star whose exterior layers have burned off during its Red Giant stage. After a time, it cools and fades away.

Binary star system: Two stars orbiting around their common center of gravity. About half of stars are part of a binary or multiple star system.

Solar wind: The stream of charged particles in the form of plasma that are continually being released from the Sun

Aurora borealis/the Northern Lights: The celestial event during which the solar wind interacts with the earth’s magnetic field and create colorful lights at the earth’s magnetic poles

The Great Red Spot: The permanent gas storm visible on Jupiter’s surface

Black hole: A supercondensed, superheavy ball of matter whose gravity pulls in nearby matter and from which nothing, not even light, can escape. Some are the remains of very large stars that, instead of dying, collapsed. Some black holes are very small, while others are several million miles across.

Singularity: A point of infinite density that exists at the center of a black hole

Event horizon: The boundary surrounding a black hole beyond which the gravitational pull is so strong that nothing, not even light, can escape. Its size is determined by the mass of the black hole.

The Big Bang theory: The most widely accepted theory regarding the creation and evolution of the universe, which states that approximately 14 billion years ago, all energy and all matter in existence were contained in a singularity, which then suddenly exploded and began to cool. As it did so, subatomic particles formed, which over time formed atoms and molecules. Eventually, gravity caused larger bits to attract smaller bits and form large stars and planets.

Dark matter: A theoretical type of matter that creates gravitational effects, but that has not yet been directly observed since it does not interact with light or any other form of electromagnetic radiation. Scientists believe that it exists partly because galaxies rotate faster than they should if visible matter is the only matter in the universe.

Of the hard sciences, physics is definitely my favorite. Biology is the most relatable and chemistry is possibly the most practical, but physics is the most philosophical. What is energy? What is matter? What is reality? How did it all begin? We’ll be debating these questions for a very long time.

ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE: PHYSICS

Physics: The study of movement and energy, including the study of mechanics, gravity, electricity, sound, light, magnetism, nuclear energy, quantum mechanics and more

Energy: The massless, volumeless, invisible something that allows for movement, chemical change and work. Everything in the universe is either this or matter. It cannot be either created or destroyed; in order to get it out of a system, you must put it into the system in a different form. It is stored in wood, fuel, batteries, light, food, and much more.

Energy conversion: A change in the form of energy from one type to another. For example, during photosynthesis, sun energy becomes stored energy, then kinetic energy used for growth.

Energy chain: The sequence of energy conversions that happen when energy is transformed from one form to another, with each transformation leading to the next

Kinetic energy: Energy that is currently active, such as wind energy and the movement of water

Potential energy: Energy that is currently in storage, such as seed energy or the energy inside a full balloon

Solar energy: The light and heat energy whose source is the sun

Nuclear energy: The energy found in an atom’s nucleus

Thermal energy: The energy that results from something’s internal temperature

Heat energy: The energy that is transferred from a warmer object to a cooler object as a result of a temperature difference between the two objects. This kind of energy moves from a warmer place to a cooler place, like air pressure moves from high-pressure to lower-pressure places and like water flows downhill.

Chemical energy: The energy stored in the bonds between atoms in molecules

Electrical energy: The energy carried by the movement of electrons in an electric conductor

Mechanical energy: The total potential and kinetic energy something has due to its motion and/or position

Gravitational energy: The potential energy something has due to its position in a gravitational field. An example is an apple that has not yet fallen off the apple tree.

Force: Any push or pull on an object. This includes the force of gravity, the force of a human hand picking something up, and much more. There are four fundamental forces in the universe: the strong nuclear force, the weak nuclear force, the electromagnetic force, and gravity. Note that all objects not in motion still have forces acting on them at all times, but when not moving, these forces cancel each other out. For example, in order for a person to sit still they must hold their body upright in a way that perfectly balances the force of gravity on it.

The strong nuclear force: The force that holds an atom’s nucleus together

The weak nuclear force: The force responsible for the decay of neutrons and more

The electromagnetic force: The force responsible for electric and magnetic interactions

Gravity: The force everywhere in the universe that pulls every object towards every other object simultaneously. This includes planets, stars, galaxies, electrons and even light. It holds heavenly bodies in orbit around each other; causes planets to attract particles and grow larger; causes the Moon to pull Earth’s water toward it, creating tides; gives things on Earth weight; and more. The greater the mass an object has, the greater gravitational force it exerts. It is the weakest of the four fundamental forces.

Albert Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity: The scientific theory that states that gravity is not a true force, but the simple physical result of the curvature of spacetime which in turn is caused by the uneven distribution of mass across the universe

E=mc^2: Energy equals mass times the speed of light squared. This is the formula that Einstein discovered that shows that a small amount of mass can be converted into a large amount of energy, and vice versa, as long as the speed of light is involved in the process.

Dynamics: The study of how forces affect motion

Fluid dynamics: The scientific principles that explain the flow of liquids and gases

Velocity: The speed of something in a given direction. It changes when direction changes even when speed stays the same.

Terminal velocity: The maximum velocity something reaches while in freefall. When something falls through gas or liquid it accelerates at a decreasing rate until the force of gravity equals the forces of friction and it reaches this state.

Friction: The resistance of one surface to the motion of another. This phenomenon is everywhere, and without its effects, nothing would stop moving until an outside force acted on it.

Equilibrium: The physical state that exists when forces or energies or systems are in balance, and there is therefore no change in motion

Inertia: The property of matter by which a stationary object remains stationary or a moving object remains moving until acted upon by another force

Freefall: The physical state that occurs when gravity is the only force affecting an object

Weightlessness: The physical state that occurs when the effects of gravity are balanced out by other forces, such as the centrifugal force of a spacecraft, and therefore seems to have no effect

Centripetal force: The force that causes something to turn in a circular path instead of in a straight line. It is not a fundamental force itself, but the net result of all the forces acting on the object that result in the circular movement.

Cohesion: The physical state that exists when molecules of a certain substance are more attracted to each other than to the substance they’re touching. An example is surface tension.

Adhesion: The physical state that exists when molecules are more attracted to the substance they’re touching than to each other. An example is glue on paper.

Diffusion: The spreading out of molecules to fill a space more evenly. An example is the spreading out of perfume to fill the air in a room.

Surface tension: The physical state that exists when a liquid’s surface resists gravity somewhat, remaining cohesive. This happens because the molecules in water at top are more attracted to the molecules in the water below than to the molecules in the air.

Turbulence: The uneven movement caused when an object moves through air or water

Drag: The friction that occurs on an object moving through air. With no friction at all, objects falling toward the earth would fall at the same rate.

Air compression: The condition created when air particles are pushed closer together (as in a small space such as a tire or a balloon). When this happens, the particles try to escape and expand by pushing on the inside walls, causing visible inflation.

Vacuum: An area of decreased air pressure that causes areas of higher air pressure to be drawn towards it. It is created when gases, such as air, are removed from a space. An example is outer space, which has no air. It isn’t isn’t the motion of pulling out air that causes it to draw air towards it, but the natural physical reaction of higher-pressure air to rush to fill (and thus balance out) lower-pressure air that causes this behavior.

Newton’s First Law of Motion: “A body at rest will remain at rest, and a body in motion will remain in motion unless it is acted upon by an external force.”

Newton’s Second Law of Motion: “The force acting on an object is equal to the mass of that object times its acceleration.”

Newton’s Third Law of Motion: “For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.” An example of this occurs when a balloon full of air is let go: the air goes one way and the balloon goes another.

Electricity: The effect caused by the presence and movement of charged particles (specifically, the electrons in the charged particles)

Electromagnetism: The force of electricity and magnetism, which occurs when electrically charged particles interact with an electromagnetic field

Electromagnetic spectrum: All types of electromagnetic radiation, whether or not they are visible to the human eye, including (in order): gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet rays, visible light, infrared rays, microwaves, radio waves (such as those used for radar, FM, TV, shortwave and AM) and more

Electromagnetic waves: Waves made of continually changing electric and magnetic fields that can move through solids, liquids, gases and even a vacuum

Electric field: An area that surrounds an electric charge or an electromagnetic wave that exerts force on other charges

Electric current: A flow of electric charge through a material or along a conductor

Conductor: An object or material that allows an electrical current to flow in one or more directions

Insulator: An object or material that does not allow an electrical current to flow freely or easily through it

Semiconductor: An object or material with some conduction, but not as much as a true conductor has

Static electricity: Electricity created due to an imbalance of electrical charges that causes some charges to seek a path away from their present location

Magnet: A material or object that produces a magnetic field. All of these have five properties in common: they only act on certain materials (iron, cobalt and nickel); they have two poles; their opposite poles attract and their like poles repel; they have magnetic fields; and their magnetic fields pass through other materials.

Magnetic field: The space around a magnet, which can attract or repel certain materials such as iron, cobalt, or nickel. It is strongest at the poles. The earth is a large magnet, and its field is strong enough that magnets will reorient to be parallel to it, which is why compasses work.

Magnetic poles: The two ends of a magnet, one of which is north-seeking and one of which is south-seeking. Opposite ends attract each other and like ends repel each other. Note that the earth’s poles don’t correspond exactly to the geographical North Pole and South Pole.

Ferromagnetism: The magnetic quality of certain materials (such as iron, cobalt and nickel) that allows these materials to permanently attract or repel. There are also many other materials that have a magnetic quality, but more weakly and not permanently.

Light: A form of energy made up of electromagnetic waves

Visible light spectrum: The relatively small part of the light spectrum that is visible to the human eye

Speed of light: The speed that light travels in a vacuum: over 186,000 miles per second. It is also the highest possible speed at which all other massless particles can travel, including gravitational waves and electromagnetic energy. Particles with any amount of mass can never reach this speed.

Luminosity: A measurement denoting the total amount of light energy emitted, whether the object is luminous itself or merely reflecting light, such as the moon

Transparent: See-through

Translucent: Almost entirely see-through

Opaque: Not see-through

Umbra: The darkest part of a shadow

Penumbra: The faded part of a shadow

Color: The various visual effects that occur when different types of matter absorb some wavelengths of light and reflect others. Wavelengths that are reflected are perceived by the human eye, while wavelengths that are absorbed are not perceived, which creates color variation.

Fluorescence: The ability to glow when exposed to light, which occurs when the material absorbs high-frequency wavelengths, like UV light (which is invisible to the human eye), then emits lower-frequency visible light as a response. UV light works best to create the glow effect because some energy is lost in the energy conversion process, and UV light has a high-energy frequency.

Phosphorescence: The ability to store fluorescent energy, then emit it up to several hours after the absorption

Convex lens/converging lens: A lens that is shaped like an upside-down bowl, whose center is thicker than its edges, which causes light to bend towards the center, making objects appear larger than they actually are. This kind of lens corrects farsightedness.

Concave lens/diverging lens: A lens that is shaped like a bowl, whose center is thinner than its edges, which causes light to bend away from the center, making objects appear smaller than they actually are. This kind of lens corrects nearsightedness.

Mirror: A piece of glass or other transparent material with a silver-colored backing behind it that causes all light to reflect back to the viewer

Reflection: The bouncing back of light rays from a surface

Refraction: A change in the path of a light wave as it passes from one medium to another. For example, a straw placed in a glass of water appears bent due to the changing path of light when traveling through air versus through water.

Diffraction: The bending and spreading out of light waves, as when passing through small openings or encountering an obstacle

Dispersion: The splitting of visible light into its component colors, which is what makes it possible for the eye to see individual colors, as in a rainbow

Prism: A transparent object, such as a diamond or a piece of cut glass, that bends light that hits it, thereby splitting it and causing a rainbow to appear

Interference: A change in the paths, amplitudes and/or frequencies of two waves as they interact with each other. When the peaks and troughs of waves that meet line up with each other, the wave increases in size. When the peaks and troughs of waves that meet are placed opposite of each other, the wave decreases in size.

Sound: The vibration that occurs in a hearing ear after sound waves transfer energy through the particles in the air until making contact with that ear. Unlike light waves, which travel as electromagnetic radiation, this type of wave transfers movement energy through gases, liquids or solids. That means it can’t travel through a vacuum such as space, and that it travels much more slowly than does light.

Tone: A prolonged sound note that vibrates at a steady frequency

Frequency: The speed of a sound’s vibration, with faster vibrations creating higher frequencies and slower vibration creating lower frequencies

Pitch: The perceived highness or lowness of a sound note depending on its frequency. It is made by tightening or loosening vocal cords, guitar strings, etc., thereby slowing down or speeding up the sound vibrations.

Sound intensity: The loudness of a sound. Louder sounds have more energy and lower sounds have less energy.

Amplitude: The length of a sound wave from top to bottom. The longer the sound wave, the louder the sound. 

Decibel: A unit of measurement of loudness

Infrasound: Sounds at frequencies below the ability of humans to hear it

Ultrasound: Sounds at frequencies above the ability of humans to hear it

Supersonic: Exceeding the speed of sound

Subsonic: Not exceeding or equal to the speed of sound

Sonic boom: The shock wave produced when an object moves through the air faster than the speed of sound

Sound barrier: The apparent physical boundary stopping the forward progress of an object traveling through the air at or above the speed of sound

Echo: The reflection of sound waves off a surface, resulting in a delayed repetition of the original sound

Sonar: A technique for locating objects underwater by bouncing high-frequency sound waves off of them

Convection: The transfer of heat through the movement of gases or liquids, such as ocean currents or warm air currents

Conduction: The transfer of heat through solids using direct contact, such as a pan on a burner

Radiation: The transfer of heat through the air or through space, such as the sun heating the atmosphere or a radiator heater heating a home’s air, whether or not that air is moving

Theoretical physics: A branch of physics that relies on mathematical models to explain natural phenomenon, rather than on applied experiments

String theory: The scientific theory proposing that the fundamental particles that make up the universe are not particles or matter, but instead string-shaped vibrations

Quantum theory: The scientific theory that attempts to explain wave-particle duality, quantization of energy, entanglement and other phenomenon found at the subatomic level

The theory of everything: Any theory that attempts to explain how all of the different theories, laws and forces can work together in the same universe, even though at times they seem to contradict each other. Note that since general relativity is used for large-scale problems and quantum theory is used for small-scale problems, their incompatibility is usually avoided in practical matters of science.

Are you the kind of person whose soul is stirred by a stirring presentation of “The Star-Spangled Banner”? Maybe it brings to mind the story of the final battle of the Revolutionary War, when …. Whether or not this describes your internal response to the land that we love, understanding the political process–and participating in it–can be important … maybe even satisfying at times, too.

Most of the following information comes from USA.gov. Direct quotes are indicated as such. To read the documents described here, visit Archives.gov.

ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE: AMERICAN GOVERNMENT

The United States of America: The democratic republic located in North America that includes fifty states, several territories and tribal nations, and the District of Columbia (the federal capital city which is not part of any state). Its states are partly self-governing but subject to federal restrictions which are outlined in the federal constitution. Residents of this country’s territories have varying rights and levels of independence. Its government includes three main branches: the legislative branch, the executive branch, and the judicial branch. Its four main governmental levels are the federal level; the state level; the county level; and the city level. There are also water management districts, fire management districts, library districts and other governmental units.

The Constitution of the United States: The foundational law of the land, which outlines the nation’s governmental structure; its basic laws; its purpose; and the rights of citizens including freedom of speech, press, religion, the right to bear arms and more. Twenty-seven amendments have been added to it over the years concerning such matters as voting rights and term limits, and it is open to interpretation by the Supreme Court as it rules on specific matters.

The Declaration of Independence: The 1776 document that called for independence from Great Britain and marked the beginning of the American Revolution. It was written mostly by Thomas Jefferson and agreed to by the American colonies, and it begins by stating that all people are created equal and have certain inalienable rights, such as the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.

The Bill of Rights: The first ten amendments to the Constitution, each of which contains multiple civil rights. In order they appear, they are: freedom of religion, speech, the press, peaceable assembly, government petition; the right to create a militia and bear arms; the right to refuse to house soldiers; the freedom from unreasonable searches and seizures unless there is a warrant with probable cause; the right to a jury trial, freedom from double jeopardy, the right to choose not to testify against onesself (this is called “pleading the fifth”), the right to not be denied life, liberty or property without due process of law and the right to not have property taken for public use without compensation; the right to a speedy trial by an impartial jury, the right to be informed of the accusation, to be confronted by the witnesses against him, to have counsel (a lawyer), and to have the opportunity to find witnesses in his favor; right to a trial by jury in civil cases in the federal court (though this type of case is no longer heard in the federal court system); freedom from excessive bail, excessive fines and cruel and unusual punishment; the retaining of other civil rights not listed in the Constitution; and the rights of states and the people to powers not specifically delegated to the federal government and also not prohibited by it to the states.

The system of checks and balances: The ability of each branch of government to limit the actions of the other branches so that no single branch holds too much power or is able to take control of the others. The executive branch is able to veto legislation created by the legislative branch, a decision the legislature can overturn by a 2/3 majority; the legislative branch is able to confirm or reject the executive branch’s nominees and can even remove the president from office in exceptional circumstances; and the judicial branch can overturn laws created by the legislative branch.

State government: The level of government that oversees the state and is subject to federal laws and limitations. These governments consist of the same three branches as does the federal government: executive, legislative, and judicial. Also like the federal government, they have their own constitutions, legislatures, court systems and codes of laws that can differ from each other. State constitutions can be amended when both the legislature and the citizens vote for the amendment. States are prohibited from forming alliances with foreign governments; declaring war; coining money, and imposing duties on imports or exports. Funding for state budgets comes from income taxes, sales taxes, excise taxes, corporate income taxes, lotteries, business license fees and more.

County: A subdivision of a state. In some states, counties have their own governments, while in others, they are merely geographical splits and the towns and cities provide the government of them

The executive branch: The branch of government tasked with enforcing laws. It is made up of the president, the vice president, and the Cabinet members. It oversees many government agencies, such as the Forest Service and the drug Enforcement Agency, that support its work.

The legislative branch: The branch of government tasked with making laws. It has two parts: the Senate and the House of Representatives. In addition to making laws, it confirms or rejects the executive branch’s nominations for various agencies and the Supreme Court; declares war; collects taxes; borrows money; and revises and approves the annual budget. It includes many government agencies, such as the Library of Congress, as well.

The judicial branch: The branch of government made up of the Supreme Court and all other federal courts, which is tasked with interpreting and applying federal law

The Congress: The name of the combined Senate and House of Representatives

The Senate: The part of the Congress that is made up of 100 elected officials, two from each state, who are called senators. Senators serve six-year terms.

The House of Representatives: The part of the Congress that is made up of 435 elected officials who are called representatives or Congresspersons. Each state elects a different number of Congresspersons based on its population. Congresspersons serve two-year terms.

The Supreme Court: The highest judicial body in the U.S., which is made up of nine justices (judges) who are nominated by the president and approved by the Senate by a simple majority. All nine hear and vote on each case, and the majority opinion is the decision. Justices write opinions to explain their decisions, but dissenting opinions can also be written. The justices hear federal court cases that have been appealed after being heard by lower federal courts. They also hear some state cases that deal with federal law. They hear a few cases orally and review others on paper.

The president: The member of the executive branch tasked with serving as head of state, director of foreign policy, and commander-in-chief of the U.S. military. They sign the budget and other bills into law and can veto bills Congress decides on. The president serves a four-year term and can be elected no more than twice.

The vice president: The member of the executive branch tasked with supporting the president; serving as the presiding officer of the Senate; and assuming the presidency when and if the president is unable to carry out their duties. The vice president serves a four-year term and can be elected no more than twice.

The Cabinet: The president’s advisors, who include the vice president, heads of executive departments (such as the Secretary of State, the Secretary of Defense, and the Secretary of the Treasury) and other high-ranking government officials who are nominated by the president and approved by the Senate. Each Each advises the president in their area of expertise.

Joint Chiefs of Staff: A group of high-ranking military leaders who advise the president and the Secretary of Defense on military matters

The National Security Council (NSC): A collection of security policy experts, including heads of various government agencies such as the Secretary of State, the Secretary of Defense, and the Director of National Intelligence, who advise the president and the Joint Chiefs of Staff on national security issues

The Secretary of State: On the federal level, the head of the U.S. Department of State who is responsible for conducting U.S. foreign policy and managing diplomatic relations with other countries. On the state level, they are the official who maintains and oversees public records and documents, such as corporate filings, election results, official state archives and more. In some states, they are also responsible for managing state-level elections; regulating business activities; overseeing professional licensing; and more.

Governor: The chief executive of the state government. They appoint individuals to various state agencies, boards, and commissions; create and propose the state budget; enforce state laws; manage state agencies; grant pardons and reprieves; serve as commander-in-chief of the state’s National Guard; and veto bills passed by the state legislature (which can be overridden by more than a simple majority). Some also have the power of a line-item veto.

Attorney General: The chief legal official of a state or jurisdiction, who is responsible for representing the government in all court cases as well as providing legal counsel to other government agencies

Auditor: The independent official responsible for ensuring that government funds are spent legally and properly by reviewing documents and the like

Treasurer: The official who is responsible for managing the financial assets and liabilities of a state, municipality, or other government entity. They invest funds, manage cash flow, pay out funds for government expenditures and more.

Superintendent of Public Instruction: The highest-ranking education official on the state level, who is responsible for overseeing the state’s public education system by creating programs, ensuring schools are meeting state and federal standards and more

Mayor: The highest elected official of a town or city. They are usually responsible for managing the city’s budget, making policy decisions, and overseeing the city’s operations.

Republican: A member of the Republican Party, one of the two major U.S. political parties, which values smaller government, lower taxes, a more laissez-faire economy and more freedom from government intervention

Democrat: A member of the Democratic Party, one of the two major U.S. political parties, which values social justice, higher taxes for the wealthy, greater government intervention in business and economic processes and a more robust welfare system

Independent: Individuals who do not belong to or identify with any political party

Third party: Any of many U.S. political parties other than the Democratic or Republican parties. Two examples are the Green Party and the Libertarian Party.

Bill: A proposed law, which is proposed by a representative, sponsored by another representative, and introduced to the House of Representatives. It goes to the proper committee, where changes can be made. After approval by the committee, it is reported to the House floor, debated, and voted on. It is then referred to the Senate, where it goes through a similar process. Finally, it is sent to the President, who either passes or vetoes the bill. If vetoed, it can still become law if both houses pass it with a two-thirds majority.

Petition: A formal request for a legislative action, usually for an initiative to be placed on the ballot for direct vote or for a referendum to be proposed and voted on by the legislature. They are often made by a citizen or group of citizens and usually require a certain number of signatures that varies by issue and location.

Initiative: A bill that is drafted by, proposed by and voted on by citizens, bypassing the legislature

Referendum: A bill that is drafted by the legislature, proposed by either the legislature or by citizens, and voted on by the citizens and that may or may not be binding

Recall: The removal of elected officials from office through a citizen vote

Line-item veto: The power of an executive governmental authority to reject specific provisions of a bill without vetoing the entire bill

General election: The final election in which voters choose from among the candidates nominated by each political party, as well as any independent candidates who have qualified to be on the ballot. To be eligible for public office at the federal level, a candidate must be a resident of their state for a certain number of years, and a presidential candidate must be a natural-born U.S. citizen. Congresspeople must be at least 25 years old, while senators must be at least 30 years old and presidents and vice presidents must be at least 35 years old. Additional requirements apply to state and local public offices.

Primary election: An election prior to the general election in which voters select the candidates who will be named on each party’s ticket. In an open primary, voters do not have to be registered with a political party to vote in that party’s primary. They can choose which party’s primary to vote in on the day of the election. In a closed primary, only voters who are registered members of a particular political party can vote in that party’s primary election.

Midterm election: An election that takes place halfway through the president’s term, in which Congresspersons and some Senators are elected and in which turnout is typically lower than in presidential election years

Presidential primary: A primary election in which presidential candidates for the major parties are chosen. Winners go on to compete in the national party conventions, where the party officially nominates their candidate.

Electoral College: A group of electors from every state called that cast the official votes for the president and vice president. They usually vote according to the popular vote. The number of electors in each state is equal to its number of representatives in both houses of Congress. The candidate who wins a majority of the electoral votes (270 out of 538) becomes the president, and the president and vice president are voted on together.

Office-block ballot: A ballot that groups candidates by office name

Party-column ballot: A ballot that groups candidate by party affiliation

Split-ticket ballot: A ballot that allows for voting for candidates of different parties in the same election

Straight-ticket ballot: A ballot that only allows for voting for candidates who are all of the same party

The federal budget: A detailed spending plan for the following fiscal year that is decided on by the Congress. The money for it comes from taxes (from individuals and businesses); loans from other countries (savings bonds, notes and Treasury bills that are sold); social security payments; and miscellaneous other sources, such as fines and licenses. It outlines spending for lawfully protected agencies (such as Medicare, Social Security, Medicaid); interest on the national debt; discretionary agencies and programs (those Congress is not required by law to support but votes to support in that year’s budget); and national defense. The process of creating it is as follows: the president creates a budget; it is reviewed by Congress, who holds hearings on it; committees and subcommittees make revisions to it; Congress passes it; and the President signs it into law.

Appropriation bills: The twelve bills that Congress proposes and attaches to the federal budget that contain all of the discretionary spending for non-mandatory programs like Social Security and Medicare

Filibuster: A technique used by Senators to prevent the voting on of a bill, even if the bill has a majority approval

The Pledge of Allegiance: A statement made while standing at attention and facing the flag with the right hand over the heart that is meant to show loyalty to the nation. It is as follows: “I pledge allegiance to the flag of the United States of America, and to the republic for which it stands, one nation under God, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all.”

The flag’s symbolism: The flag represents the shared values and history of the American people, including the values of liberty, democracy and patriotism. The thirteen red and white stripes represent the thirteen original colonies, while the fifty white stars represent the fifty states. The red color represents valor and bravery. The white color represents purity and innocence, and the blue color represents vigilance, perseverance and justice.

Rules for flag flying: The flag shouldn’t be flown in inclement weather unless it’s an all-weather flag; when displayed at night, the flag should be properly illuminated; at certain times, as in a time of national mourning, the flag should be hung at half-mast; the flag should not be flown upside down unless as a signal of distress; when flown with another flag, it should be placed to your left when crossed; when stored, flag should be folded into a triangle with the union (blue section) visible; if damaged, the flag should be disposed of with dignity, usually by burning; the flag should not touch anything below it or rest on the ground; and the flag should never be used for advertising purposes or as a decoration

Major U.S. welfare programs: Social security; medicare and medicaid; supplemental security income (SSI) (aid to elderly and disabled people who do not qualify for social security benefits); food stamps; the earned income tax credit (EITC); public/subsidized housing; rent vouchers; unemployment benefits

Before you debate, learn your stuff. Here are some of the terms you need to know in order to do your civic duties well.

Note that some political terms are not mutually exclusive; for example, the U.S. can be described as a democracy, a republic, a capitalist country or a federation. Also keep in mind that there is a great deal of flexibility and variation in many of these terms. Use these definitions as generalizations to aid in your understanding, not as a definitive description.

Find U.S. elected officials on usa.gov/elected-officials.

ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE: POLITICAL SCIENCE

Politics: The complicated, multi-part process of choosing laws and lawmakers and carrying out other duties of political office

Government: A state-run institution that is tasked with maintaining order, protecting citizens, and promoting the general welfare of society by making and enforces laws and carrying out many other specified services, such as education and infrastructure building and maintenance

Political science: The study of political history, processes, people and ideas

Political party: A named group that shares political preferences and seeks to have their representatives elected

Suffrage: The right and ability to vote in an election

Political power: The ability to control or influence politics

Political legitimacy: The acceptance of a governing authority by its citizens

Political authority: The ability of a governing authority to govern without the use of force

Sovereignty: The right of a state to govern itself without external interference. In some cases, this right may be limited by international law, treaties and other considerations.

Political ideology: A set of beliefs about the right, practical and preferable function, structure and powers of government

Party identification: Loyalty to a political party, whether or not one is an official member of that party

Democracy: A political system in which citizens have the right and ability to vote for their laws and governmental leaders, either directly or through elected representatives

Monarchy: A form of government that is led by a supreme leader whose powers vary by state. In a constitutional monarchy, the monarch is limited and guided by a constitution, the foundational law of the land. An emirate is a form of monarchy ruled by an emir (the ruler of a Muslim state). A sultanate is ruled by a sultan.

Oligarchy: A form of government that is led by a small group of individuals, usually wealthy and well-connected ones

Dictatorship: A form of government in which a single ruler has absolute power. In most cases, leaders of this type of government create a legal framework that justifies their actions.

Constitutional democracy: A democracy in which the rights and powers of the people are described in a constitution, which is the foundational law of the land

Republic: A form of government in which the people elect representative leaders to carry out their goals

Democratic republic: A type of republic in which the representatives are elected through a democratic process

Presidential government: A republic with a separate executive branch from the legislative branch that is led by a president

Parliamentary government: A form of government in which the executive branch, including main leader and an advisory cabinet, is chosen by a legislature or parliament. The leader is called a prime minister or a chancellor. This branch can be dissolved by the parliament and can in turn dissolve the parliament.

Federation: A form of government in which a group of individual states or provinces are united under a central government with limited powers

Confederacy: A looser form of government in which the member states or provinces retain almost all of their sovereignty and autonomy, with the central government having very limited powers

Confederation: A general term that can refer to any political association in which several states or provinces join together for a common purpose

Theocracy: A form of government in which a deity or religion, as interpreted by religious professionals, is supreme

Feudalism: A hierarchical political and social system that dominated Europe and Japan during the Middle Ages in which peasants worked for and were loyal to knights, knights worked for and were loyal to lords and lords worked for and were loyal to kings. Territory disputes were common due to political instability.

English colony: A territory or region that was controlled and governed by the British Empire, with varying degrees of autonomy and self-government

U.S. protectorate: A state or territory that is under the protection and influence of the United States, but is not fully incorporated as a part of the United States and has some degree of autonomy and self-government

Tribal nation: A sovereign yet dependent nation that must follow federal law but not all state laws

Non-government organization (NGO): A private, non-profit entity that works towards social, environmental, or humanitarian goals, often independent of government

Regime: Any particular government that is in power at a particular time. The word usually carries negative connotations.

The political spectrum: A way of organizing political ideologies according to the amount of government control and, conversely, the amount of individual freedom they espouse. Commonly, though not always, it is viewed as a straight line, giving rise to the “left-right” terminology. It is as follows, starting at the right: anarchy; libertarian capitalism; conservative capitalism; progressive liberal capitalism; socialism; and communism. Fascism/totalitarianism is often considered to be a far-right ideology, though it is more similar to communism.

Liberalism: In the U.S., a political ideology promoting social and economic reform, higher taxes and greater governmental power. It is associated with the Democratic Party. An economic liberal espouses only or mainly the ideology’s economic ideas, and a social liberal espouses only or mainly the ideology’s social values. In Europe, the term is used differently, signifying an ideology closer to what Americans call conservativism, and the word progressivism is used to describe what Americans call liberalism.

Conservatism: A political ideology promoting free markets, restricted government, efficient use of government resources and traditional social values. In the U.S., it is associated with the Republican Party. An economic conservative espouses only or mainly the ideology’s economic ideas, and a social conservative espouses only or mainly the ideology’s social values.

Capitalism: A political system or ideology based on private ownership, free-market competition and the profit motive

Socialism: A political system or ideology in which democratically elected leaders attempt to fairly redistribute wealth; eliminate or greatly reduce economic inequality; provide universal access to essential goods and services such as healthcare and education; and give workers greater control over the means of production

Communism: A political system or ideology in which private ownership of property, businesses and capital is banned and the state, usually run by a small group of leaders, controls everything. The state claims that all people share ownership of all resources, though in practice, it owns everything. Leaders are not elected democratically.

Libertarianism: A political system or ideology that seeks to maximize the freedom of the individual and minimize the size and powers of the government

Anarchy: A political system or ideology that seeks to abolish hierarchical forms of government in favor of cooperative systems

Totalitarianism: A political system or ideology in which state authority is total and often brutally enforced

Fascism: A form of totalitarianism that existed in several nations during World War II that was characterized by extreme militarism and nationalism

Nazism: National Socialism, the form of fascism that existed in Germany prior to and during World War II after the Nazi Party came into power

Marxism: A form of communism devised by Karl Marx in the late nineteenth century that he claimed would free the proletariat (workers) from exploitation by capitalists (business owners), resulting in a socialist system and classless society in which the means of production are owned collectively by the workers

Welfare capitalism: A form of capitalism in which a free-market economy is combined with an extensive social welfare system, including universal health care, education and more

State capitalism: A form of capitalism in which the government controls or heavily influences the economy, often through state-owned enterprises or by providing subsidies to certain industries

Laissez-faire capitalism: A form of capitalism in which the government exercises minimal control of the economy

Nationalism: A political ideology that holds that a nation should be fully sovereign and that citizens should be loyal to their nation above all else

Isolationism: A political ideology that holds that a nation should practice non-intervention or low intervention in international affairs

Egalitarianism: A belief in the inherent and rightful political, social and economic equality of all people

Political corruption: The use of entrusted powers by government officials for private gain. This includes extortion, cronyism, nepotism, patronage, graft, pork barreling, embezzlement and more.

Extortion: Obtaining or attempting to obtain something through force or threats

Bribery: Obtaining or attempting to obtain something through a monetary payment

Graft: The illegal use of public monies for private gain. It can take many forms, including embezzlement, bribery, granting lucrative contracts to associates who offer monetary kickbacks and more.

Embezzlement: Theft or misappropriation of public or institutional money or property for private use

Cronyism: The favoring of friends for political office or other benefits

Nepotism: The favoring family members for political office or other benefits

Patronage: The practice of giving government jobs or contracts to people as a reward for their political support

Pork barreling: The use of power and position to secure funding for local projects that may not be necessary or cost-effective in order to gain political support from constituents. This is frequently done by adding riders to bills and exchanging political favors.

Rider: An addition to a law that might or might not have any connection to the issue the law addresses, added to gain favor with the representatives who benefit from it

Conflict of interest: An ethically problematic situation in which a person has two different responsibilities that might have conflicting goals, resulting in difficult choices on the part of that person. An example of this is a state representative who is also a member of the board of a large company, such as a drug manufacturer, who might pressure the representative to pass legislation that is amenable to their cause.

Gerrymandering: Manipulating the boundaries of an electoral district in order to give one political party an advantage over another. This can be done by either packing opposition voters into a single district (thus wasting their votes) or spreading them across multiple districts (thus diluting their power).

Lobbying: The attempt by individuals and large organizations to influence lawmakers in their policy decisions through a variety of techniques such as persuasion, information, material incentives, economic leverage, disruption, entertainment and litigation. Professional lobbyists work for large corporations. They sometimes get only two or three minutes of an official’s time to make their case. Former government officials often become lobbyists and earn a high salary as such.

Soft money: Unregulated and sometimes unlimited donations given to political organizations rather than directly to candidates in order to avoid contribution limits. It was outlawed for federal elections but loopholes are constantly being sought.

Partisan journalism: Journalism that is clearly biased in favor of a political party or ideology

Yellow journalism: Journalism that relies on sensationalism, exaggeration, and often unethical practices to attract its audience

Interest group: An organization that advocates for the political interests of a specific group of people, such as a business, a labor union or an environmentalist group. They aren’t allowed to endorse candidates, but they are allowed to contribute to political campaigns through PACs.

Political action committee (PAC): An organization that advocates for a special interest group by making financial contributions to political campaigns, writing legislation, and more

Super PAC: A type of PAC that can raise and spend unlimited amounts of money to support or oppose candidates, as long as they do not coordinate directly with the candidate’s campaign

Grassroots activism: The process of mobilizing large numbers of people to achieve shared goals through techniques such as letter writing campaigns, rallies and marches, petitions, initiatives, lobbying, advertising, local meeting attendance, campaigning, writing policy education materials and more

Economic issues: Political questions that concern the production, distribution, and consumption of goods, capital and services in a society. These include questions surrounding taxation, government spending, government regulation, trade and more.

Social issues: Political questions that concern matters of social justice, equality, equity and government-supplied benefits to the public. These include questions surrounding abortion, affirmative action, animal rights, capital punishment, censorship, freedom of speech, freedom of the press, Internet taxation, climate change, disarmament and nonproliferation, drugs, imprisonment, education, foreign aid, gay rights, gun rights, health care, immigration, lobbying, nuclear testing, political corruption, race relations, separation of church and state, space policy, welfare and more.

Foreign policy: A country’s strategies and measures regarding international issues, including issues of diplomacy, foreign aid, trade agreements, military force, political alliances, global human rights, nuclear proliferation, environmental concerns, terrorism and more

Public policy: A country’s strategies and measures regarding issues that concern the general policy, including welfare, national security, the environment and much more

Constituents: Voters and other citizens who are represented by elected political leaders

Bureaucracy: A large and complex organization that is typically hierarchical in structure, with specialized roles and procedures for decision-making and implementation

Political machine: A political organization that attempts to control a government through manipulation of elections, patronage and more

Grant: A financial award given by a government agency or private organization to a special program in response to their written grant proposal

Citizen legislation: Legislation that is initiated and voted on by citizens rather than by legislators

National debt: The total amount of money that a country’s government owes to its creditors, which can include both domestic and foreign investors, as well as other countries

Colonization: The takeover of a nation or people by a foreign nation, usually by force

The British Conservative Party: One of the two main political policies in the U.K., which advocates for free-market economic policies and conservative social values

The British Labour Party: One of the two main political parties in the U.K., which advocates for progressive values such as universal healthcare, affordable housing, and workers’ rights

Sociology is the subject you learned without realizing you learned it. This is because as one wends their way through discussions of news, politics, culture and more, the following terms are encountered many, many times. Consider this list a refresher.

ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE: SOCIOLOGY

Sociology: The study of human social life, including the study of class structures; political structures; inequalities; culture; institutions; relationships; group dynamics and more

Socialization: The ongoing process by which individuals learn social norms, including family-led primary socialization as well as secondary socialization from others

Society: A collection of people who share space and culture

Culture: The shared features of a group that might include values, language, food and much more

Subculture: A group that promotes values and activities that are different from and sometimes contrary to those of the dominant culture

Group: Two or more people who interact regularly, have a sense of belonging and have their own chosen norms

Aggregate: A collection of people who happen to be at the same place at the same time

Network: A series of loosely held social ties that can be important sources of information, contacts, and assistance for its members

Nuclear family: One or two primary caregivers and their children

Primary group: A group that has emotional intimacy, a great sense of belonging and meets frequently, such as a family

Secondary group: A group that is more formal and less personal than a primary group but still meets regularly, such as a workplace or neighborhood group

Reference group: A group people compare themselves with for purposes of self-evaluation

Group dynamics: The ways in which an individual’s thoughts and behaviors are influenced by their groups

Role: A set of behavioral norms and expectations

Value: A culturally and personally determined belief about what is right or wrong, desirable or undesirable

Ideology: A set of values on which people base their religious ideas, political beliefs, behavioral choices and more

More: A socially constructed guideline for behavior

Sanction: A socially constructed expression of approval or disapproval

Peer pressure: The social pressure applied by groups, often unintentionally, to encourage conformity

Social control: The ways a society encourages conformity to norms

Deviance: The violation of a norm

Stigma: A trait or characteristic people possess that causes them to lose social status

Taboo: A strongly held social norm

Social alienation: The rejection or incomplete integration of a person into a community

Groupthink: The tendency of people to follow the majority opinions of the group, leading to narrow, uncreative views and solutions

Social construction: A viewpoint created by a group

Social status: A person’s social rank in a particular setting

Status symbol: An outward manifestations of prestige, such as expensive clothing

Social capital: The non-monetary resources available to a person that stem from their human interaction, including information, opportunities, power and influence, liking, reputation, cooperation and more

Assimilation: The process whereby members of a group give up parts of their own culture in order to blend in to a new culture

Social integration: The degree to which an individual feels connected to the other people in his or her group or community

Resocialization: The learning of new norms and values that occurs when life circumstances change dramatically

Master status: The main trait or status that a person is known by, such as their occupation (i.e. stay-at-home mom)

Industrial society: A society that uses advanced sources of energy, rather than humans and animals, to run large machinery

Postindustrial society: A society that features an economy based on services and technology, not production

Developing nations: Countries that are in the process of becoming industrialized

First-world, second-world and third-world nations: An outmoded and offensive classification of countries according to their level of modernization, infrastructure and wealth

Socioeconomic status (SES): A calculation of one’s education, income, occupation and possibly ethnicity and gender that results in a nonscientific social categorization

Class warfare: The political tension and economic inequalities that exist between social classes

Social mobility: Movement up or down within the social hierarchy

Caste system: A social system based on ascribed statuses, traits or characteristics that people possess at birth

Class system: A social system based partly or largely on achieved statuses, traits or characteristics that are earned and chosen

Elite: A small group of powerful people who hold a disproportionate amount of wealth, privilege, political power, or skill in a society

Power elite: A small group of the most wealthy, powerful, and influential people in business, government, and the military that are thought to run a society

Nobility: The highest stratum of the estate system of stratification whose members had significant inherited wealth

Nouveau riche: The class of people whose wealth has been around only for a generation or two. The name comes from the Latin phrase for “new money.”

Bourgeoisie: In Marxist theory, the class of people who own the industrial means of production, to whom the working class sells their services

Proletariat: In Marxist theory, the working class people

Poverty level: An estimate set by the federal government of the minimum income that a family needs to survive

Gentrification: The changes that occur when wealthier residents and businesses move into a neighborhood or area in large numbers, including loss of unique local qualities; appropriation of unique qualities; and the pricing out of current residents

Race: A set of shared physical characteristics loosely based on place of origin

Ethnicity: A set of shared cultural characteristics, including nationality, language, religion, and traditions

Stereotype: An assumption people make about a person or a group, often on the basis of incorrect or incomplete information

Racial prejudice: The unavoidable mental associations and generalizations every person retains concerning race

Racial discrimination: A statement or act that seeks to remove power or dignity from a person of color

Racism: The systemic, institutionalized discrimination and prejudice that pervades every level of society, including workplaces, governments, the criminal justice system and many more

White supremacy: The assumed intellectual, cultural and moral superiority of white people, as opposed to people of color. The term was first used to refer to white people who worked for racial segregation and the oppression of people of color, but is now widely used to refer to the innumerable cultural messages that permeate Western society.

White privilege: The sum total of the many small and large benefits of being white

White fragility: The defensiveness displayed by many white people during discussions about race, which might lead them to provide overly simplistic solutions, dramatize their own suffering, display anger, avoid discussion, shut down discussion/change topic or focus, seek white solidarity and more

Multiculturalism: The existence and fair-minded acceptance of multiple cultural heritages living side by side

Pluralistic society: A society composed of many different races, ethnicities and cultures

Ethnocentrism: The tendency to judge another culture by the standards of one’s own culture

Microaggression: A statement or act that betrays a person’s racial prejudice and in some way diminishes a person of color but does not overtly discriminate against them. An example is a careless statement about a person’s hair texture or not looking at a person of color when talking to a group.

Institutionalized racism: The ways in which systems of society, such as the education, employment, criminal justice and healthcare systems, reinforce racial inequality and discrimination

The prison industrial complex: The network of private and government-run organizations that profit from mass incarceration

Mass incarceration: The legally sanctioned imprisonment of several million people in the United States, many of whom are people of color, and many of whom are required to provide very low-cost to free labor to U.S. corporations working through contracts with the prison system

The New Jim Crow: The modern system for denying numerous civil and other rights to people of color in the United States, particularly, but not limited to, people previously convicted of felony crimes. It includes laws which allow for unconstitutional acts, such as search and seizure without cause, racial profiling, targeted policing, cruel and unusual punishment, unfair trials and others; laws and other practices that deny people with felony records access to job opportunities, business licenses, gun licenses, housing, food assistance, insurance, loans, educational assistance and more; laws that deny people with felony records the right to vote, serve on a jury or perform other civic duties; and more.

Contact hypothesis: A hypothesis stating that prejudice declines when people in an in-group become more familiar with the customs, norms, food, music, and attitudes of people in an out-group

Disenfranchisement: The revocation of a person’s rights, including their right to vote

The Other: A person or group of people thought to be different, even alien, by another person or group

Gender socialization: The tendency for boys and girls to be socialized differently

Sex: One’s anatomical gender

Gender: One’s felt or experienced gender

Cisgender: The quality of having the same anatomical and experienced gender

Transgender: The quality of having an experienced gender different from one’s anatomical gender

Transsexual: A person who has had gender reassignment surgery

Non-binary gender: An umbrella term for genders that fall somewhere in the middle of the gender spectrum and are neither strictly male or female

Queer theory: A field of critical theory that interprets literature, culture and history through the lens of non-binary gender issues

Patriarchy: A society in which men hold most of the power, including political, moral, financial and social power, and places of leadership

Auguste Comte: The founder of sociology as a scientific pursuit who argued that industrialization was to blame for class struggle

Karl Marx: An early sociologist who theorized that capitalism was the cause of class struggle and who argued that sociology should include not just facts, but social critique

Human rights: Rights many believe all people are entitled to, such as freedom of religion, speech and education

Institution: A set of norms surrounding the carrying out of a function necessary for the survival of a society

Bureaucracy: An institution with a hierarchy of rigid, rule-bound officials

Neocolonialism: A theory concerning the tendency of the most industrialized nations to exploit less developed countries politically and economically

Hegemony: The political, economic, or military predominance or control of one state over others

Cultural relativism: The theory that in order to understand the traits of another culture, one must study them within the context of that culture

Secularization: The transformation of a society from close identification with religious values and institutions toward nonreligious values and secular institutions

Urbanization: The process by which a large percentage of a population migrates toward urban centers

White-collar crime: Nonviolent crime committed by middle class professionals, often in the context of the workplace

Victimless crime: Crimes in which laws are violated but that lack an identifiable victim

Recidivism: The tendency of convicted criminals to repeat offenses

Consumerism: The acquisition of goods and services in ever-increasing amounts

Conspicuous consumption: The acquiring of luxury goods and services with the goal of public display

Meritocracy: A system in which positions are given according to individual merit

The American Dream: The idea that all people, regardless of the conditions into which they were born and their current social economic status, should have the chance to succeed

Social Darwinism: The late-nineteenth century theory that stronger people increase in wealth and power while weaker people decrease in the same

Primogeniture: A law stipulating that only a first-born son could inherit his father’s wealth

Math thinking grows the brain. Avoid taking the easy way out when encountering simple math problems in daily life. On paper or in your head, convert measurements, add and subtract large numbers, calculate costs per unit, find averages and percentages and more when opportunities arise. It gets easier, and saves time (and sometimes money) in the long run.

ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE: ARITHMETIC AND MEASUREMENT

Equation: A mathematical statement that shows the relationship between two expressions, separated by an equal sign

Operation: A mathematical process that takes one or two numbers as inputs and produces a number as an output, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, or division

Multiplication: The process of finding the product of two factors

Division: The process of finding an unknown factor

Whole number: A number with no fractional part

Integer: A whole number, either positive or negative

Negative number: A number that is less than zero

Positive number: A number that is more than zero

Absolute value: A number’s distance from zero, whether negative or positive

Place value: The position of a number within a larger number, which is what determines that number’s value. For example, the two in the number .12 is in the hundreds place, while the one is in the tens place.

Inequality: A mathematical expression that contains an inequality symbol

Numerator: The top number in a fraction that represents the number of parts being considered

Denominator: The bottom number in a fraction that represents the total number of equal parts in a whole

Remainder: The number left over after division has taken place. This occurs when the numerator cannot be equally divided by the denominator.

Factor: A number that divides another number, leaving no remainder. For example, 3 and 4 are factors of 12.

Greatest common factor: The largest factor that all the numbers being worked with share. For example, 12 and 16 share a factor of 4.

Product: The result of multiplying two numbers

Multiple: A number that can be divided by another number without a remainder. For example, 10 and 15 are multiples of 5.

Least common multiple: The smallest multiple that is divisible by all the numbers being worked with. For example, 4 is the least common multiple of 2 and 4 is 4 because the multiples of 2 are 2, 4, 6, 8, etc. and the multiples of 4 are 4, 6, 8, 10, etc.

Lowest terms: A fraction that has been simplified to its smallest possible form, where the numerator and denominator have no common factors greater than one. For example, 12/16ths in lowest terms is 3/4ths.

Improper fraction: A fraction in which the numerator is greater than or equal to the denominator; for example, 11/5

Mixed fraction: A fraction that combines a whole number and a proper fraction; for example, 3 1/3

Like fractions: Fractions that share the same denominator; for example, 3/4 and 1/4

Equivalent fractions: Fractions that represent the same quantity or value, but may have different numerators and denominators; for example, 2/4 and 1/2

Array: An arrangement of objects, pictures, or numbers in rows and columns. These can be used to illustrate multiplication and division problems. For example, the math problem 3 x 4 could be shown by creating three rows of four dots.

Set: Any collection of elements, whether they are numbers, objects or something else. It contains only one of each type of element, however.

Sequence: An enumerated collection of objects in which repetitions are allowed and order matters

Bar graph: A chart that uses bars to represent data

Line graph: A chart that uses lines, usually on a graph featuring an x-axis and a y-axis, to represent data

Table: A chart that organizes numbers into columns. Tables often show the various results of a calculation as it is affected by one or more variables.

Pie chart: A chart that organizes percentage values in a single circle that is segmented like a cut pie

Venn diagram: A diagram that displays intersecting and various-sized circles to represent the interrelationships between data sets

One million: 1,000,000

One billion: 1,000,000,000

One trillion: 1,000,000,000,000

Roman numerals 1-9: I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX

Roman numerals 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80 and 90: X, XX, XXX, XL, L, LX, LXX, LXXX, XC

Roman numerals 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900: C, CC, CCC, CD, D, DC, DCC, DCCC, CM

Roman numerals 1000, 2000, and 3000: M, MM, MMM

Metric system of measurement: The worldwide standard measurement system, which is based on multiples of 10, and includes meters and grams

English system of measurement: A system of measurement used primarily in the United States that includes units such as inches, feet, miles, and pounds

Kelvin: A temperature scale used in scientific measurements where 0 degrees represents absolute zero, the lowest possible temperature. 1 degree Kelvin is the same as 1 degree Celsius, but the 0 point (starting point) is different.

Celsius: A temperature scale where the freezing point of water is 0 degrees and the boiling point of water is 100 degrees, commonly used in most countries worldwide

Fahrenheit: A temperature scale where the freezing point of water is 32 degrees and the boiling point of water is 212 degrees, commonly used in the United States

Centigrade: A older name for Celsius

The number of millimeters in a meter: 1000

The number of centimeters in a meter: 100

The number of meters in a kilometer: 1000

The number of milligrams in a gram: 1000

The number of grams in a kilogram: 1000

The number of kilograms in a metric ton: 1000

The number of inches in a foot: 12

The number of feet in a yard: 3

The number of yards in a mile: 1760

The number of ounces in a pound: 16

The number of pounds in a ton: 2000

The number of teaspoons in a tablespoon: 3

The number of fluid ounces in a cup: 8

The number of cups in a pint: 2

The number of pints in a quart: 2

The number of quarts in a gallon: 4

The number of milliliters in a liter: 1000

The number of days in a year: 365

How to convert Celsius to Fahrenheit: C = (F – 32) X 5/9 and F = (C X 9/5) + 32

The freezing point in Celsius: 0 degrees

The freezing point in Fahrenheit: 32 degrees

The boiling point in Celsius: 100 degrees

The boiling point in Fahrenheit: 212 degrees