You’ve heard the term “music appreciation.” While appreciation classes vary widely, they usually cover a historical overview of the subject, a sampling of the subject in question, plus a smattering of basic terms and technical knowledge–exactly the sort of overview this book seeks to offer. (Samplings can be found in the Resources section of this book.)
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE: MUSIC
Composition: A unified and distinct piece of music that is typically written in musical notation
Symphony: A large-scale musical composition typically written for a full orchestra
Waltz: A type of dance and a musical composition written in triple meter, typically in a 3/4 time signature
Opera: A stage drama set to orchestral music
Orchestra: A large group of musicians playing together on a variety of instruments, usually representing all four instrument families
Woodwind instruments: Instruments made of wood whose sounds come from the player’s vibrating breath as it moves through it. Woodwind vibrations are caused by a reed in the instrument.
Stringed instruments: Instruments whose sounds come from the movement of strings
Brass instruments: Instrument made of brass whose sounds come from the player’s vibrating breath as it moves through it. Brass instrument vibrations are caused by the player’s lips.
Percussion instruments: Instruments whose sounds come from a player hitting, scraping or shaking it Note that a piano is both a wind and a percussion instrument.
The four main vocal ranges from highest to lowest: Soprano, alto, tenor and bass
Octave: The collection of notes between two successive notes of a kind (e.g. the notes between middle C and the C following it). Each octave is double the frequency of the one below it in the scale.
Scale: The collection of notes that make up one or more octaves in the same key
Key: The use of scale in actual music, named for its first note. Most musical pieces are produced in a single key, with all of their notes coming from that key’s notes.
Note: A notation representing the pitch and duration of a musical sound. There are four types: whole, half, quarter, and eighth. Their pitch is shown by their placement on the scale shown in the sheet music.
Tone: A sound produced due to a single frequency
Pitch: A note’s perceived sound frequency, which might be slightly higher or lower than its tone
Flat: A lowering of a note’s pitch by a semitone
Sharp: A raising of a note’s pitch by a semitone
Rhythm: Music’s pattern in time
Beat: A individual unit of time that, with others, forms a rhythm; the basic unit of measurement of a rhythm
Tempo: The overall speed of a piece of music
Harmony: The sound of two or more notes heard simultaneously
Resonance: The amplification or expansion of a sound
Timbre: A subjective description of a sound’s quality or uniqueness; the various qualities of a sound that make it recognizable. For example, Whitney Houston’s voice is different from Bette Midler’s voice due to many variations in smoothness, roughness, lightness, intensity and more.
Accent: A momentary emphasis or stress on a particular note or rhythmic detail
Crescendo: A growing sound
Forte: A louder, stronger sound
Mezzo: Halfway, as in mezzo forte (half loud) and mezzo soprano
Staccato: A briefer, more detached sound
Legato: A drawn out sound
Reprise: A repeated section
Movement: A segment of a piece of music that is set apart in some way from the rest of the piece. A movement is often performed separately, and named separately, from the larger work.
Aria: A segment of a piece of music that is written for one voice, usually with orchestral accompaniment and set apart in some way from the rest of the piece
Overture: The orchestral introduction to a musical composition. An overture also serves as a piece in its own right.
Coda: A piece’s tail or closing section
Encore: The return to the stage of a performer for an additional, unlisted piece
Virtuoso: A performer of exceptional ability or artistry
Acoustic music: Music that is produced by instruments rather than by electronics
Music synthesizer: A computer-run machine that generates electronic sounds and modifies sound input in a variety of ways
Amplifier/amp: An electronic device that works with a mechanical loudspeaker, turning low voltage signals into higher ones that can be heard over the speakers
Bass speaker/woofer: A loudspeaker designed to produce high voltage low frequency sounds
Prehistoric music: The music of early hominids, who sang, hummed and whistled; made flutes and pipes out of bone; and made percussion instruments out of wood and rocks
Music of ancient times: The music of ancient peoples, who used it for entertainment, celebration and spiritual reasons.The oldest known song, as well as the first known musical notation, was written in cuneiform, indicating the importance of music to early civilizations. Greek music included double pipes, the double-reed aulos, a plucked string instrument, the lyre, mixed-gender choruses and more. Roman music included harps, lyres and trumpets and featured simple melodies without harmony.
Monastery music: The music created by Roman Catholics in monasteries and abbeys during the Middle Ages, which thought of as an exclusive art form and was usually performed for religious purposes. Though the human voice was still central to most works, a wider range of wind, brass and percussion instruments came into use during this time.
Plainchant: A type of religious music in which sacred texts are sung in a monophonic manner with minimal instrumental accompaniment
Gregorian Chant: A more elaborate type of medieval religious chant, possibly developed by Pope Gregory, which is known for the haunting sound of the open, perfect fifth and its move toward polyphony
Polyphony: The use of complex vocal melodies and harmonies
Monophony: The use of simple, single-line melodies without harmony
Renaissance music: A musical style that dominated from approximately 1400 to 1600 and was characterized by polyphony rather than monophony and the use of more instruments than ever before. During this time, opera was created, the four families of instruments were established, and music moved from its place as an exclusive, religion-centered art to its new place as an art of the people, appreciated and created everywhere.
Opera: A form of theatrical art in which singers and orchestras perform a dramatic work. It originated in Italy around 1600 and was at its peak in the mid-1800s.
Baroque music: An ornate musical style that featured multiple simultaneous melodies that came about around 1600 and was at its peak around the mid-1700s. Important Baroque composers include Bach, Handel and Vivaldi.
Classical period music: A sleeker, less ornate, less contrasting musical style characterized by balanced and symmetrical phrases, clear melodies and emotional restraint that began in the mid-1700s until being surpassed by the romantic style in the mid-1800s. Many Classical pieces feature the early piano instead of the harpsichord, which significantly altered their effect. Important Classical composers were Mozart and Beethoven. Mozart was extremely versatile, creating masterful music in every popular genre of his time. Beethoven redefined and refined classical music and bridged the gap between the Classical period and the Romantic period.
Music of the Romantic period: The emotional, dramatic music that arose in the mid-1800s and that was characterized by increased experimentation; contrasting elements; and the use of a larger orchestra. Notable Romantic composers were Tchaikovsky, Schumann, Chopin, Brahms, Verdi and Wagner.
Modern and contemporary music: The music from the year 1900 and beyond, which evolved from two disparate forms, folk and classical, and which often includes choruses and verses, easily singable melodies and a single vocalist. However, it also often incorporates a variety of instruments, complex harmonies and other creative elements, such as electronic sound. Important modern and contemporary musical genres include: country, folk, electronic music, funk, hip hop, jazz, Latin, pop, punk, reggae, rock, metal, soul, R&B, polka, modern classical/instrumental, world, big band and religious music.
The School in a Book curriculum isn’t just for adults. As soon as children can follow a simple plot, they can begin booking it down this list. They can also enjoy adapted versions of many of the books for adults–even the Iliad and the Odyssey. (I also discuss with them many of the simpler concepts in the science lists.)
A few notes on reading to your kids: If you like, just read. Good syntax and rhythm is an education in itself. However, you might want to incorporate reading comprehension into your experience. You can do this by asking your child to summarize the story or to tell you what they think it means. Both of these tasks prepare them for competence in writing, an activity that depends on clear thinking and good organization. Some education professionals say that most college students can’t correctly identify the main points of a given text; don’t let this be your kid. (Older kids need to start outlining texts in writing as soon as they’re ready.)
By the way, shortcut-takers like me can scout out fun video versions of these stories on YouTube and elsewhere on the internet. Sometimes, I cue up five or six and pat myself on the back for providing my young children with such a great educational head start.
ESSENTIAL RESOURCES: CLASSIC CHILDREN’S LITERATURE
I am not a movie buff. Still, I don’t want to miss out on the shows and films that even today, inform our shared cultural conversation. There’s a lot to learn here about love, hope and coming of age–and about writing an awesome screenplay, too.
ESSENTIAL RESOURCES: CLASSIC FILMS
Classic Children’s Films, Shows and Musicals
The Wizard of Oz (1930s)
Snow White (1930s)
Bambi (1940s)
Pinocchio (1940s)
Dumbo (1940s)
Old Yeller (1950s)
Sleeping Beauty (1950s)
Cinderella (1950s)
Alice in Wonderland (1950s)
Winnie the Pooh and the Honey Tree (1960s)
The Jungle Book (1960s)
Charlotte’s Web (1970s)
The Muppet Movie (1970s)
Benji (1970s)
Charlie and the Chocolate Factory (1970s)
The Many Adventures of Winnie the Pooh (1970s)
Star Wars: A New Hope (George Lucas, 1970s)
Star Wars: The Empire Strikes Back (George Lucas, 1980s)
Star Wars: Return of the Jedi (George Lucas, 1980s)
E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (Steven Spielburg, 1980s)
Labyrinth (Jim Henson, 1980s)
The Neverending Story (1980s)
Goonies (1980s)
The Karate Kid (1980s)
Ghostbusters (1980s)
Anne of Green Gables (series) (1980s)
Anne of Avonlea (series) (1980s)
Indiana Jones and the Raiders of the Lost Ark (Steven Spielburg, 1980s)
Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom (Steven Spielburg, 1980s)
Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade (Steven Spielburg, 1980s)
My Neighbor Totoro (1980s)
Return to Oz (1980s)
Beauty and the Beast (1990s)
The Little Mermaid (1990s)
The Lion King (1990s)
Aladdin (1990s)
Home Alone (1990s)
Home Alone 2: Lost in New York (1990s)
The Sandlot (1990s)
The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (2000s)
The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (2000s)
The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2000s)
Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone (2000s)
Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets (2000s)
Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire (2000s)
The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe (2000s)
The Chronicles of Narnia: Prince Caspian (2000s)
The Chronicles of Narnia: The Voyage of the Dawn Treader (2010s)
Frozen (2010s)
Tangled (2010s)
Classic Musicals
An American in Paris (1920s)
Singin’ in the Rain (1950s)
Oklahoma! (1950s)
White Christmas (1950s)
Annie Get Your Gun (1950s)
Guys and Dolls (1950s)
South Pacific (1950s)
Seven Brides for Seven Brothers (1950s)
The King and I (1950s)
Calamity Jane (1950s)
West Side Story (1960s)
Pollyanna (1960s)
Oliver! (1960s)
Cabaret (1960s)
Dr. Dolittle (1960s)
The Sound of Music (1960s)
Babes in Toyland (1960s)
The Music Man (1960s)
Breakfast at Tiffany’s (1960s)
My Fair Lady (1960s)
Fiddler on the Roof (1970s)
Grease (1970s)
Godspell (1970s)
Jesus Christ, Superstar (1970s)
Hair (1970s)
The Rocky Horror Picture Show (1970s)
Annie (1980s)
Footloose (1980s)
Little Shop of Horrors (1980s)
Cats (1990s)
Mary Poppins
Classic Christmas Films
It’s a Wonderful Life (Frank Capra, 1940s)
Miracle on 34th Street (1940s)
A Christmas Carol (1950s)
Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer (1960s)
Frosty the Snowman (1960s)
How the Grinch Stole Christmas (1960s)
A Charlie Brown Christmas (1960s)
A Christmas Story (1980s)
National Lampoon’s Christmas Vacation (1980s)
The Muppet Christmas Carol (1990s)
Classic Films for Older Kids and Adults
The Arrival of a Train (1890s)
Nanook of the North (1920s)
Man with a Movie Camera (1920s)
Night Mail (1930s)
Frankenstein (1930s)
M (Fritz Lang, 1930s)
Triumph of the Will (1930s)
You Can’t Take It With You (Frank Capra, 1930s)
It Happened One Night (Frank Capra, 1930s)
Mutiny on the Bounty (Frank Lloyd, 1930s)
The Lady Vanishes (Alfred Hitchcock, 1930s)
The Thirty-Nine Steps (Alfred Hitchcock, 1930s)
The Bells of St. Mary’s (1940s)
How Green is My Valley (1940s)
Casablanca (1940s)
National Velvet (1940s)
From Here to Eternity (1950s)
Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (1950s)
Love is a Many-Splendored Thing (1950s)
Rebel Without a Cause (1950s)
Roman Holiday (1950s)
The African Queen (1950s)
The Silent World (1950s)
The Three Faces of Eve (1950s)
Ben-Hur (1950s)
Night and Fog (1950s)
The Train (1960s)
Citizen Kane (Orson Welles, 1940s)
A Face in the Crowd (Elia Kazan, 1950s)
East of Eden (Elia Kazan, 1950s)
On the Waterfront (Elia Kazan, 1950s)
Wild Strawberries (Ingmar Bergman, 1950s)
North by Northwest (Alfred Hitchcock, 1950s)
Rear Window (Alfred Hitchcock, 1950s)
Strangers on a Train (Alfred Hitchcock, 1950s)
Suspicion! (Alfred Hitchcock, 1940s)
The Man Who Knew Too Much (Alfred Hitchcock, 1950s)
To Catch a Thief (Alfred Hitchcock, 1950s)
Vertigo (Alfred Hitchcock, 1950s)
The Lord of the Flies (1960s)
Those Magnificent Men in Their Flying Machines (1960s)
What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? (1960s)
The Sorrow and the Pity (1960s)
Titicut Follies (1960s)
Salesman (1960s)
The Man Who Shot Liberty Vallance (1960s)
8 ½ (Federico Fellini, 1960s)
Breakfast at Tiffany’s (1960s)
How the West Was Won (1960s)
Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid (1960s)
Doctor Zhivago (1960s)
Night of the Living Dead (1960s)
Planet of the Apes (1960s)
The Graduate (1960s)
Splendor in the Grass (Elia Kazan, 1960s)
The Absent-Minded Professor (1960s)
Hannah and Her Sisters (Woody Allan, 1960s)
Il Dolce Vita (Federico Fellini, 1960s)
Lolita (Stanley Kubrick, 1960s)
The Birds (Alfred Hitchcock, 1960s)
Psycho (Alfred Hitchcock, 1960)
Roots (series) (1970s)
Saturday Night Fever (1970s)
The Exorcist (1970s)
Summer of My German Soldier (1970s)
Saturday Night Fever (1970s)
Brother Sun, Sister Moon (1970s)
Monty Python and the Holy Grail (1970s)
Annie Hall (Woody Allen, 1970s)
Orchestra Rehearsal (Federico Fellini, 1970s)
Freaky Friday (1970s)
Taxi Driver (Martin Scorsese, 1970s)
A Clockwork Orange (Stanley Kubrick, 1970s)
Cries and Whispers (Ingmar Bergman, 1970s)
Big (1980s)
Airplane! (1980s)
The Princess Bride (1980s)
Babette’s Feast (1980s)
Sophie’s Choice (1980s)
Das Boot/The Boat (1980s)
Zelig (Woody Allen, 1980s)
The Atomic Cafe (1980s)
The Times of Harvey Milk (1980s)
Clue (1980s)
Parenthood (1980s)
Field of Dreams (1980s)
Moonstruck (1980s)
Platoon (Oliver Stone, 1980s)
Radio Days (Woody Allen, 1980s)
Crimes and Misdemeanors (Woody Allen, 1980s)
Eat, Drink, Man, Woman (1990s)
Fight Club (1990s)
Life Is Beautiful (1990s)
What’s Eating Gilbert Grape? (1990s)
Edward Scissorhands (1990s)
American Beauty (1990s)
Raise the Red Lantern (1990s)
Following (1990s)
To Live (1990s)
True Romance (1990s)
The Last Days of Disco (1990s)
Pleasantville (1990s)
The Truman Show (1990s)
Naked Lunch (1990s)
Gummo (1990s)
High Art (1990s)
Run Lola Run (1990s)
Man on the Moon (1990s)
Pi (1990s)
Hoop Dreams (1990s)
Being John Malcovich (Spike Jonze, 1990s)
Barton Fink (Joes and Ethan Coen, 1990s)
Wild at Heart (David Lynch, 1990s)
Lost Highway (David Lynch, 1990s)
Four Rooms (Quentin Terantino, 1990s)
Jackie Brown (Quentin Terantino, 1990s)
Pulp Fiction (Quentin Terantino, 1990s)
Reservoir Dogs (Quentin Terantino, 1990s)
Primer (2000s)
Memento (2000s)
Requiem for a Dream (2000s)
A Scanner Darkly (2000s)
American Psycho (2000s)
American Splendour (2000s)
Secretary (2000s)
Swimming Pool (2000s)
The Princess and the Warrior (2000s)
Igby Goes Down (2000s)
The Lives of Others (2000s)
Mulholland Drive (David Lynch, 2000s)
Kill Bill Volume I & II (Quentin Terantino, 2000s)
Don’t Look Up (2020s)
Additional Recommended Films: Documentaries
While the main criteria for the films on these lists is cultural and artistic significance, I also wanted to include movies that aren’t important as such, but that contain interesting, relevant information; little-understood niches; and unique perspectives–which is where the following documentaries come in. Some are socially relevant; most are disturbing; and all are in some way educational.
Twelve years of elementary and high school plus extracurricular studies leaves us with a lot of information. Too much information, sometimes. Since we can’t retain everything, our brains have to pick and choose. And sometimes they make pretty bad decisions. We might live with our in-depth understanding of the oboe forever, say, but can’t recall whether Alexander the Great lived before or after the Roman Empire. If we don’t want our most important knowledge areas to fade out, then, we do well to periodically review the basics.
That’s where School in a Book comes in.
For each subject listed below, I’ve written a knowledge checklist of sorts: a collection of essential terms and other information. It’s not a textbook; instead, it’s an overview, a handy guide to help you strengthen your weak points and gain a wider perspective of the topic.
Sample sections are available here. To learn when this complete work becomes available for purchase, subscribe to my blog to the right.
Essential Knowledge: Mandarin Chinese Vocabulary (this section to come)
Essential Knowledge: Spanish Vocabulary (this section to come)
How to Use This Book
Subject-specific suggestions for memorizing and applying the lessons in this book can be found in the brief overviews provided. Here are a few other general tips:
TIP #1: TREAT IT LIKE A CHECKLIST
As you peruse the lists in this book, you will find many facts you already know. This is a good thing. If you have the book in print form, you might want to mark your retained facts as you go. There’s a saying in psychology: “Shrink the change.” The more facts and lists you master, the more encouraged you’ll be to move on to more challenging areas. (Check marking also prevents you from wasting time re-reading old-to-you material.)
TIP #2: YOUTUBE. LOTS OF YOUTUBE.
Almost all of the material in this book is available in multiple forms somewhere on the Internet. Because websites change constantly, linking to recommended Internet resources isn’t necessary or even very helpful. Most terms you search for will yield a wide variety of accurate, well-stated, brief and even entertaining articles, videos and tutorials. No longer under copyright, classic books and stories are freely available as well. When working with my children on these lists, I often find relevant videos on YouTube–one under-ten-minute video per term or story. I queue up five or six in separate tabs, and my kids are fully engaged with free, educational material for an hour.
TIP #3: CREATE YOUR OWN FLASH CARDS.
The most difficult part of this book to write was the history section. Timelines feel natural, yet I avoided this presentation as much as possible since they don’t facilitate memorization. (Question: The year 1789. Answer: ???) Instead, I arranged the information in the same way the other lists are arranged, with recognizable names and other terms followed by their “definitions.” If you can buzz down a list, identifying each of these with your hand covering the explanations, you’ve mastered that section. Better yet, create your own flash cards. The act of writing the information will help you retain a surprising amount of it.
TIP #4: DON’T JUST LEARN IT. MASTER IT.
Unlike many other textbooks, this book has very little filler. Everything here is meant to be both understood and retained. Don’t just read over the definitions to determine whether or not you “get it”; quiz yourself on them. It’s always interesting to notice how much harder it is to bring something back to mind than to simply understand it.
School in a Book Advantages
Finally, since I love lists so much, here’s another one for you: the eight main advantages of this book.
But first, two disadvantages: While much of the information presented here is straightforward and ready to memorize, the Essential Skills and Essential Resources lists require further research, reading and practice. In addition, School in a Book is, unapologetically, a generalist, liberal arts curriculum. It is a straightforward, basic overview of each topic–nothing more. It goes without saying that there is more to life than fractions and the Mayflower, so take these basic concepts and use them to build yourself into a great generalist … then branch off from there in the directions of your choice.
ADVANTAGE #1: IT HELPS YOU BECOME A GENERALIST
Educators love to debate the relative merits of a generalist versus specialist education. My feeling is that life is long and learning is an innate human need; however, humans don’t innately know what they should specialize in. By establishing a wide knowledge base as early as possible, areas of interest present themselves more readily.
ADVANTAGE #2: IT GIVES YOU A FAST OVERVIEW OF A SUBJECT
The book’s biggest advantage, I think, is a hidden one: By reading the entire outline of a topic in one sitting, you’re able to feel, maybe for the first time, that you truly understand it. Here’s a metaphor I like: If a physics textbook is a detailed travel guide to the world of that subject, the School in a Book physics checklist is a physics map. By reading the checklist all at once, you’re able to see the bigger picture: physics has to do with energy, motion, gravity, electricity, magnetism, light, sound and nuclear forces. Understanding this builds confidence as well as competence.
ADVANTAGE #3: IT LISTS ONLY THE ESSENTIALS
School in a Book won’t waste your time. Enough said.
ADVANTAGE #4: IT AIDS MEMORIZATION
I know, I know: memorization is out of fashion these days. But let’s not take our emphasis on critical thinking and creativity too far. If thinking skills are the toolkit, facts are the raw building materials. It’s impossible to arrange an interesting proposal, plan, article or analysis–or even have a fluent conversation on a topic–without the facts–the building blocks–in hand. (Okay, it’s possible, but we all know what that looks like and it isn’t pretty.)
The very best way to use School in a Book is as a tool for memorization. This is the stuff you’ll want to know–to retain–for the many efforts, decisions and conversations to come in your life.
ADVANTAGE #5: IT HELPS YOU FILL IN YOUR KNOWLEDGE GAPS
You might be surprised at how much you don’t know about the world, even if you’ve completed twelve or more years of school. I was. (Okay, that’s not quite true. I knew how badly I needed help.) Our minds don’t always pick and choose well. They might record every word our favorite teachers say, but almost nothing from certain entire textbooks. Here, discover what you missed on the days you slept in, as well as what you forgot.
ADVANTAGE #6: IT ASSISTS WITH COLLEGE PREPARATION
Though this resource purports to be an elementary through high school educational reference text, the checklists were designed to cover 101-level college material (and, in a few cases, levels higher than this). This is because I believe that college 101 classes are generally meant to catch up incoming college students on the subjects they should have learned in high school, but didn’t.
ADVANTAGE #7: IT ORGANIZES ALL YOUR CHECKLISTS IN ONE PLACE
I love organizing. I love brevity, too. Almost in a romantic sort of way. Other books spread out the essential knowledge between pages of description, introduction, images, callouts and the like. School in a Book eschews such inefficient use of space in order to provide extremely easy access to a broad range of information. The book can be used as one large checklist that you work through at your own pace. In addition, lists are organized by type of learning required: Essential Learning, Essential Skills and Essential Resources. When facts, books and skills are all mixed together, the checklists become much harder to work with. Studying facts requires different mental and environmental preparation than does practicing a skill or reading a book.
A LAST WORD
I hope that you find these terms and lists as useful as I have, but if you don’t, wait a few years. By mastering the School in a Book material, you’ve paved the way for an easier high school and college experience. You’ve also obtained a good knowledge foundation that will serve you well your entire adult life.
Don’t believe the rumors: you can be a generalist and a specialist both. Why not? Life is long, and learning is life. Be curious. Be unafraid. Read nonfiction every day. Watch documentaries. Find a passion (or six). Be great.
The smaller we feel, the more awe we experience. And who doesn’t love the feeling of awe? The following astronomical terms and ideas will help you converse fluently on the topic of the universe, but do also read The Fabric of the Cosmos by Brian Greene and Steven Hawking’s A Brief History of Time. There’s also a great memoir by Scott Kelly of living on the ISS for a year called Endurance, as well as many excellent space documentaries.
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE: ASTRONOMY
Space: All of the area outside the earth’s atmosphere, whose temperatures vary from far below freezing (such as areas blocked by planets to the rays of stars) to far above boiling water (such as areas not blocked from the rays of stars)
Universe: All of the billions of galaxies in existence, which are held together by gravity. It is mostly empty space, which is why collisions are infrequent, and is constantly slowly expanding.
Star: A ball of very hot gas in space, which can be white, red, yellow or blue, depending on its surface temperature
Sun: The only star in Earth’s solar system. It is medium-sized: about 100 times the size of Earth and ten times the size of Jupiter. On its surface, it is about 5,500 degrees Celsius.
Planet: A spinning ball of rock and/or gas that travels around a star (or a black hole) in an orbit. Since they are so far away, we can only see a few outside our solar system directly.
Moon: A mini planet that revolves around a planet instead of revolving around a star. The earth’s is dry and dusty with many craters. It takes about 27 days for ours to spin once, and about 27 days for it to orbit once around the earth, which is why it doesn’t seem to be spinning. It is always facing away from us, so we’ve never seen the other side directly (though we have taken photographs). It takes about three days to reach it, depending on its placement relative to the earth in its elliptical orbit.
Solar system: A group of planets revolving around a single star or a group of stars, or a small group of stars revolving around each other. Ours contains one star, eight planets and many asteroids and comets.
Galaxy: A group of solar systems which orbit around each other. Sometimes they cross paths with each other and collide. Many contain millions of stars, and many have a black hole at their center.
Star cluster: A group of stars that forms together
Galaxy cluster: A group of galaxies held together by gravity
Supercluster: A group of galaxy clusters
The eight planets of our solar system, in order from the sun: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune. The closest four are terrestial planets, made of rock, while the further four are gas giants, made primarily of gas. Jupiter is our largest planet while Mercury is our smallest.
The eight phases of Earth’s moon: The views of the earth’s moon from the earth, which change in a 29.5-day cycle. The eight phases are: new (no visible light); waxing crescent (small sliver visible); first quarter (half moon visible); waxing gibbous (mostly visible); full (full moon visible); waning gibbous (mostly visible); third quarter (half moon visible); and waning crescent (small sliver visible).
Orbit: The circular path taken by a planet, moon, star or other celestial body. These can be maintained indefinitely because the gravity that pulls the orbiting object toward another object is balanced by the orbiting object’s momentum, which seeks to keep the orbiting object moving in a straight line. In empty space, friction, drag and other forces do not exist, so the object’s momentum is never lost.
Solar mass: The mass of the sun, which is used as a standard unit of measurement of space bodies
The Milky Way: The name of the galaxy our solar system is in. It is about 100,000 light years across and contains hundreds of billions of stars.
Andromeda: The nearest large galaxy to the Milky Way
The Local Cluster: The galaxy cluster that includes the Milky Way, Andromeda and dozens of other galaxies
One day: The unit of time marking one spin of the earth on its axis, which takes approximately 24 Earth hours. The part of the earth facing the sun has light, and the other doesn’t. It takes 365 days for the earth to orbit around the sun one time.
Light year: The distance light travels in one year (approximately 9.5 trillion kilometers, which is about 300,000,000 meters per second), which is used as a measurement of large distances in space
Solar eclipse: A celestial event during which the sun is entirely obscured from view for a short time due to the path of the moon, which brings it between the earth and the sun
Lunar eclipse: A celestial event during which the moon is mostly obscured from view for a short time due to the path of the Earth, which brings it between the moon and the sun
Asteroid: A piece of rock or metal in space that is larger than a meteoroid and smaller than a moon and revolves around the sun
Meteoroid: A piece of rock or metal in space that is the size of dust, the size of a house or anywhere in-between and revolves around the sun
Meteor: A meteoroid that burns up in a planet’s atmosphere. It is also known as a shooting star.
Meteorite: A meteoroid that hits the surface of a planet
Comet: A ball of dirty ice floating around space. When close enough to the sun, the ice melts partway and the solar wind blows a trail of gas and dust behind it, making a tail.
Nebula: A big cloud of gas and dust that stars are formed in or that formed from an exploded star
Supernova: A very large star that has reached the end of its life (and its supply of gas) and is exploding
Neutron star: The core of a supernova, which is a highly dense, rapidly rotating ball of neutrons
Pulsar: A highly magnetized neutron star that gives off waves (pulses) of radiation
Red Giant: A star that is nearing the end of its life and has swelled up and turned red
White dwarf: A hot, small star whose exterior layers have burned off during its Red Giant stage. After a time, it cools and fades away.
Binary star system: Two stars orbiting around their common center of gravity. About half of stars are part of a binary or multiple star system.
Solar wind: The stream of charged particles in the form of plasma that are continually being released from the Sun
Aurora borealis/the Northern Lights: The celestial event during which the solar wind interacts with the earth’s magnetic field and create colorful lights at the earth’s magnetic poles
The Great Red Spot: The permanent gas storm visible on Jupiter’s surface
Black hole: A supercondensed, superheavy ball of matter whose gravity pulls in nearby matter and from which nothing, not even light, can escape. Some are the remains of very large stars that, instead of dying, collapsed. Some black holes are very small, while others are several million miles across.
Singularity: A point of infinite density that exists at the center of a black hole
Event horizon: The boundary surrounding a black hole beyond which the gravitational pull is so strong that nothing, not even light, can escape. Its size is determined by the mass of the black hole.
The Big Bang theory: The most widely accepted theory regarding the creation and evolution of the universe, which states that approximately 14 billion years ago, all energy and all matter in existence were contained in a singularity, which then suddenly exploded and began to cool. As it did so, subatomic particles formed, which over time formed atoms and molecules. Eventually, gravity caused larger bits to attract smaller bits and form large stars and planets.
Dark matter: A theoretical type of matter that creates gravitational effects, but that has not yet been directly observed since it does not interact with light or any other form of electromagnetic radiation. Scientists believe that it exists partly because galaxies rotate faster than they should if visible matter is the only matter in the universe.
Of the hard sciences, physics is definitely my favorite. Biology is the most relatable and chemistry is possibly the most practical, but physics is the most philosophical. What is energy? What is matter? What is reality? How did it all begin? We’ll be debating these questions for a very long time.
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE: PHYSICS
Physics: The study of movement and energy, including the study of mechanics, gravity, electricity, sound, light, magnetism, nuclear energy, quantum mechanics and more
Energy: The massless, volumeless, invisible something that allows for movement, chemical change and work. Everything in the universe is either this or matter. It cannot be either created or destroyed; in order to get it out of a system, you must put it into the system in a different form. It is stored in wood, fuel, batteries, light, food, and much more.
Energy conversion: A change in the form of energy from one type to another. For example, during photosynthesis, sun energy becomes stored energy, then kinetic energy used for growth.
Energy chain: The sequence of energy conversions that happen when energy is transformed from one form to another, with each transformation leading to the next
Kinetic energy: Energy that is currently active, such as wind energy and the movement of water
Potential energy: Energy that is currently in storage, such as seed energy or the energy inside a full balloon
Solar energy: The light and heat energy whose source is the sun
Nuclear energy: The energy found in an atom’s nucleus
Thermal energy: The energy that results from something’s internal temperature
Heat energy: The energy that is transferred from a warmer object to a cooler object as a result of a temperature difference between the two objects. This kind of energy moves from a warmer place to a cooler place, like air pressure moves from high-pressure to lower-pressure places and like water flows downhill.
Chemical energy: The energy stored in the bonds between atoms in molecules
Electrical energy: The energy carried by the movement of electrons in an electric conductor
Mechanical energy: The total potential and kinetic energy something has due to its motion and/or position
Gravitational energy: The potential energy something has due to its position in a gravitational field. An example is an apple that has not yet fallen off the apple tree.
Force: Any push or pull on an object. This includes the force of gravity, the force of a human hand picking something up, and much more. There are four fundamental forces in the universe: the strong nuclear force, the weak nuclear force, the electromagnetic force, and gravity. Note that all objects not in motion still have forces acting on them at all times, but when not moving, these forces cancel each other out. For example, in order for a person to sit still they must hold their body upright in a way that perfectly balances the force of gravity on it.
The strong nuclear force: The force that holds an atom’s nucleus together
The weak nuclear force: The force responsible for the decay of neutrons and more
The electromagnetic force: The force responsible for electric and magnetic interactions
Gravity: The force everywhere in the universe that pulls every object towards every other object simultaneously. This includes planets, stars, galaxies, electrons and even light. It holds heavenly bodies in orbit around each other; causes planets to attract particles and grow larger; causes the Moon to pull Earth’s water toward it, creating tides; gives things on Earth weight; and more. The greater the mass an object has, the greater gravitational force it exerts. It is the weakest of the four fundamental forces.
Albert Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity: The scientific theory that states that gravity is not a true force, but the simple physical result of the curvature of spacetime which in turn is caused by the uneven distribution of mass across the universe
E=mc^2: Energy equals mass times the speed of light squared. This is the formula that Einstein discovered that shows that a small amount of mass can be converted into a large amount of energy, and vice versa, as long as the speed of light is involved in the process.
Dynamics: The study of how forces affect motion
Fluid dynamics: The scientific principles that explain the flow of liquids and gases
Velocity: The speed of something in a given direction. It changes when direction changes even when speed stays the same.
Terminal velocity: The maximum velocity something reaches while in freefall. When something falls through gas or liquid it accelerates at a decreasing rate until the force of gravity equals the forces of friction and it reaches this state.
Friction: The resistance of one surface to the motion of another. This phenomenon is everywhere, and without its effects, nothing would stop moving until an outside force acted on it.
Equilibrium: The physical state that exists when forces or energies or systems are in balance, and there is therefore no change in motion
Inertia: The property of matter by which a stationary object remains stationary or a moving object remains moving until acted upon by another force
Freefall: The physical state that occurs when gravity is the only force affecting an object
Weightlessness: The physical state that occurs when the effects of gravity are balanced out by other forces, such as the centrifugal force of a spacecraft, and therefore seems to have no effect
Centripetal force: The force that causes something to turn in a circular path instead of in a straight line. It is not a fundamental force itself, but the net result of all the forces acting on the object that result in the circular movement.
Cohesion: The physical state that exists when molecules of a certain substance are more attracted to each other than to the substance they’re touching. An example is surface tension.
Adhesion: The physical state that exists when molecules are more attracted to the substance they’re touching than to each other. An example is glue on paper.
Diffusion: The spreading out of molecules to fill a space more evenly. An example is the spreading out of perfume to fill the air in a room.
Surface tension: The physical state that exists when a liquid’s surface resists gravity somewhat, remaining cohesive. This happens because the molecules in water at top are more attracted to the molecules in the water below than to the molecules in the air.
Turbulence: The uneven movement caused when an object moves through air or water
Drag: The friction that occurs on an object moving through air. With no friction at all, objects falling toward the earth would fall at the same rate.
Air compression: The condition created when air particles are pushed closer together (as in a small space such as a tire or a balloon). When this happens, the particles try to escape and expand by pushing on the inside walls, causing visible inflation.
Vacuum: An area of decreased air pressure that causes areas of higher air pressure to be drawn towards it. It is created when gases, such as air, are removed from a space. An example is outer space, which has no air. It isn’t isn’t the motion of pulling out air that causes it to draw air towards it, but the natural physical reaction of higher-pressure air to rush to fill (and thus balance out) lower-pressure air that causes this behavior.
Newton’s First Law of Motion: “A body at rest will remain at rest, and a body in motion will remain in motion unless it is acted upon by an external force.”
Newton’s Second Law of Motion: “The force acting on an object is equal to the mass of that object times its acceleration.”
Newton’s Third Law of Motion: “For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.” An example of this occurs when a balloon full of air is let go: the air goes one way and the balloon goes another.
Electricity: The effect caused by the presence and movement of charged particles (specifically, the electrons in the charged particles)
Electromagnetism: The force of electricity and magnetism, which occurs when electrically charged particles interact with an electromagnetic field
Electromagnetic spectrum: All types of electromagnetic radiation, whether or not they are visible to the human eye, including (in order): gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet rays, visible light, infrared rays, microwaves, radio waves (such as those used for radar, FM, TV, shortwave and AM) and more
Electromagnetic waves: Waves made of continually changing electric and magnetic fields that can move through solids, liquids, gases and even a vacuum
Electric field: An area that surrounds an electric charge or an electromagnetic wave that exerts force on other charges
Electric current: A flow of electric charge through a material or along a conductor
Conductor: An object or material that allows an electrical current to flow in one or more directions
Insulator: An object or material that does not allow an electrical current to flow freely or easily through it
Semiconductor: An object or material with some conduction, but not as much as a true conductor has
Static electricity: Electricity created due to an imbalance of electrical charges that causes some charges to seek a path away from their present location
Magnet: A material or object that produces a magnetic field. All of these have five properties in common: they only act on certain materials (iron, cobalt and nickel); they have two poles; their opposite poles attract and their like poles repel; they have magnetic fields; and their magnetic fields pass through other materials.
Magnetic field: The space around a magnet, which can attract or repel certain materials such as iron, cobalt, or nickel. It is strongest at the poles. The earth is a large magnet, and its field is strong enough that magnets will reorient to be parallel to it, which is why compasses work.
Magnetic poles: The two ends of a magnet, one of which is north-seeking and one of which is south-seeking. Opposite ends attract each other and like ends repel each other. Note that the earth’s poles don’t correspond exactly to the geographical North Pole and South Pole.
Ferromagnetism: The magnetic quality of certain materials (such as iron, cobalt and nickel) that allows these materials to permanently attract or repel. There are also many other materials that have a magnetic quality, but more weakly and not permanently.
Light: A form of energy made up of electromagnetic waves
Visible light spectrum: The relatively small part of the light spectrum that is visible to the human eye
Speed of light: The speed that light travels in a vacuum: over 186,000 miles per second. It is also the highest possible speed at which all other massless particles can travel, including gravitational waves and electromagnetic energy. Particles with any amount of mass can never reach this speed.
Luminosity: A measurement denoting the total amount of light energy emitted, whether the object is luminous itself or merely reflecting light, such as the moon
Transparent: See-through
Translucent: Almost entirely see-through
Opaque: Not see-through
Umbra: The darkest part of a shadow
Penumbra: The faded part of a shadow
Color: The various visual effects that occur when different types of matter absorb some wavelengths of light and reflect others. Wavelengths that are reflected are perceived by the human eye, while wavelengths that are absorbed are not perceived, which creates color variation.
Fluorescence: The ability to glow when exposed to light, which occurs when the material absorbs high-frequency wavelengths, like UV light (which is invisible to the human eye), then emits lower-frequency visible light as a response. UV light works best to create the glow effect because some energy is lost in the energy conversion process, and UV light has a high-energy frequency.
Phosphorescence: The ability to store fluorescent energy, then emit it up to several hours after the absorption
Convex lens/converging lens: A lens that is shaped like an upside-down bowl, whose center is thicker than its edges, which causes light to bend towards the center, making objects appear larger than they actually are. This kind of lens corrects farsightedness.
Concave lens/diverging lens: A lens that is shaped like a bowl, whose center is thinner than its edges, which causes light to bend away from the center, making objects appear smaller than they actually are. This kind of lens corrects nearsightedness.
Mirror: A piece of glass or other transparent material with a silver-colored backing behind it that causes all light to reflect back to the viewer
Reflection: The bouncing back of light rays from a surface
Refraction: A change in the path of a light wave as it passes from one medium to another. For example, a straw placed in a glass of water appears bent due to the changing path of light when traveling through air versus through water.
Diffraction: The bending and spreading out of light waves, as when passing through small openings or encountering an obstacle
Dispersion: The splitting of visible light into its component colors, which is what makes it possible for the eye to see individual colors, as in a rainbow
Prism: A transparent object, such as a diamond or a piece of cut glass, that bends light that hits it, thereby splitting it and causing a rainbow to appear
Interference: A change in the paths, amplitudes and/or frequencies of two waves as they interact with each other. When the peaks and troughs of waves that meet line up with each other, the wave increases in size. When the peaks and troughs of waves that meet are placed opposite of each other, the wave decreases in size.
Sound: The vibration that occurs in a hearing ear after sound waves transfer energy through the particles in the air until making contact with that ear. Unlike light waves, which travel as electromagnetic radiation, this type of wave transfers movement energy through gases, liquids or solids. That means it can’t travel through a vacuum such as space, and that it travels much more slowly than does light.
Tone: A prolonged sound note that vibrates at a steady frequency
Frequency: The speed of a sound’s vibration, with faster vibrations creating higher frequencies and slower vibration creating lower frequencies
Pitch: The perceived highness or lowness of a sound note depending on its frequency. It is made by tightening or loosening vocal cords, guitar strings, etc., thereby slowing down or speeding up the sound vibrations.
Sound intensity: The loudness of a sound. Louder sounds have more energy and lower sounds have less energy.
Amplitude: The length of a sound wave from top to bottom. The longer the sound wave, the louder the sound.
Decibel: A unit of measurement of loudness
Infrasound: Sounds at frequencies below the ability of humans to hear it
Ultrasound: Sounds at frequencies above the ability of humans to hear it
Supersonic: Exceeding the speed of sound
Subsonic: Not exceeding or equal to the speed of sound
Sonic boom: The shock wave produced when an object moves through the air faster than the speed of sound
Sound barrier: The apparent physical boundary stopping the forward progress of an object traveling through the air at or above the speed of sound
Echo: The reflection of sound waves off a surface, resulting in a delayed repetition of the original sound
Sonar: A technique for locating objects underwater by bouncing high-frequency sound waves off of them
Convection: The transfer of heat through the movement of gases or liquids, such as ocean currents or warm air currents
Conduction: The transfer of heat through solids using direct contact, such as a pan on a burner
Radiation: The transfer of heat through the air or through space, such as the sun heating the atmosphere or a radiator heater heating a home’s air, whether or not that air is moving
Theoretical physics: A branch of physics that relies on mathematical models to explain natural phenomenon, rather than on applied experiments
String theory: The scientific theory proposing that the fundamental particles that make up the universe are not particles or matter, but instead string-shaped vibrations
Quantum theory: The scientific theory that attempts to explain wave-particle duality, quantization of energy, entanglement and other phenomenon found at the subatomic level
The theory of everything: Any theory that attempts to explain how all of the different theories, laws and forces can work together in the same universe, even though at times they seem to contradict each other. Note that since general relativity is used for large-scale problems and quantum theory is used for small-scale problems, their incompatibility is usually avoided in practical matters of science.
Math thinking grows the brain. Avoid taking the easy way out when encountering simple math problems in daily life. On paper or in your head, convert measurements, add and subtract large numbers, calculate costs per unit, find averages and percentages and more when opportunities arise. It gets easier, and saves time (and sometimes money) in the long run.
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE: ARITHMETIC AND MEASUREMENT
Equation: A mathematical statement that shows the relationship between two expressions, separated by an equal sign
Operation: A mathematical process that takes one or two numbers as inputs and produces a number as an output, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, or division
Multiplication: The process of finding the product of two factors
Division: The process of finding an unknown factor
Whole number: A number with no fractional part
Integer: A whole number, either positive or negative
Negative number: A number that is less than zero
Positive number: A number that is more than zero
Absolute value: A number’s distance from zero, whether negative or positive
Place value: The position of a number within a larger number, which is what determines that number’s value. For example, the two in the number .12 is in the hundreds place, while the one is in the tens place.
Inequality: A mathematical expression that contains an inequality symbol
Numerator: The top number in a fraction that represents the number of parts being considered
Denominator: The bottom number in a fraction that represents the total number of equal parts in a whole
Remainder: The number left over after division has taken place. This occurs when the numerator cannot be equally divided by the denominator.
Factor: A number that divides another number, leaving no remainder. For example, 3 and 4 are factors of 12.
Greatest common factor: The largest factor that all the numbers being worked with share. For example, 12 and 16 share a factor of 4.
Product: The result of multiplying two numbers
Multiple: A number that can be divided by another number without a remainder. For example, 10 and 15 are multiples of 5.
Least common multiple: The smallest multiple that is divisible by all the numbers being worked with. For example, 4 is the least common multiple of 2 and 4 is 4 because the multiples of 2 are 2, 4, 6, 8, etc. and the multiples of 4 are 4, 6, 8, 10, etc.
Lowest terms: A fraction that has been simplified to its smallest possible form, where the numerator and denominator have no common factors greater than one. For example, 12/16ths in lowest terms is 3/4ths.
Improper fraction: A fraction in which the numerator is greater than or equal to the denominator; for example, 11/5
Mixed fraction: A fraction that combines a whole number and a proper fraction; for example, 3 1/3
Like fractions: Fractions that share the same denominator; for example, 3/4 and 1/4
Equivalent fractions: Fractions that represent the same quantity or value, but may have different numerators and denominators; for example, 2/4 and 1/2
Array: An arrangement of objects, pictures, or numbers in rows and columns. These can be used to illustrate multiplication and division problems. For example, the math problem 3 x 4 could be shown by creating three rows of four dots.
Set: Any collection of elements, whether they are numbers, objects or something else. It contains only one of each type of element, however.
Sequence: An enumerated collection of objects in which repetitions are allowed and order matters
Bar graph: A chart that uses bars to represent data
Line graph: A chart that uses lines, usually on a graph featuring an x-axis and a y-axis, to represent data
Table: A chart that organizes numbers into columns. Tables often show the various results of a calculation as it is affected by one or more variables.
Pie chart: A chart that organizes percentage values in a single circle that is segmented like a cut pie
Venn diagram: A diagram that displays intersecting and various-sized circles to represent the interrelationships between data sets
One million: 1,000,000
One billion: 1,000,000,000
One trillion: 1,000,000,000,000
Roman numerals 1-9: I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX
Roman numerals 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900: C, CC, CCC, CD, D, DC, DCC, DCCC, CM
Roman numerals 1000, 2000, and 3000: M, MM, MMM
Metric system of measurement: The worldwide standard measurement system, which is based on multiples of 10, and includes meters and grams
English system of measurement: A system of measurement used primarily in the United States that includes units such as inches, feet, miles, and pounds
Kelvin: A temperature scale used in scientific measurements where 0 degrees represents absolute zero, the lowest possible temperature. 1 degree Kelvin is the same as 1 degree Celsius, but the 0 point (starting point) is different.
Celsius: A temperature scale where the freezing point of water is 0 degrees and the boiling point of water is 100 degrees, commonly used in most countries worldwide
Fahrenheit: A temperature scale where the freezing point of water is 32 degrees and the boiling point of water is 212 degrees, commonly used in the United States
Centigrade: A older name for Celsius
The number of millimeters in a meter: 1000
The number of centimeters in a meter: 100
The number of meters in a kilometer: 1000
The number of milligrams in a gram: 1000
The number of grams in a kilogram: 1000
The number of kilograms in a metric ton: 1000
The number of inches in a foot: 12
The number of feet in a yard: 3
The number of yards in a mile: 1760
The number of ounces in a pound: 16
The number of pounds in a ton: 2000
The number of teaspoons in a tablespoon: 3
The number of fluid ounces in a cup: 8
The number of cups in a pint: 2
The number of pints in a quart: 2
The number of quarts in a gallon: 4
The number of milliliters in a liter: 1000
The number of days in a year: 365
How to convert Celsius to Fahrenheit: C = (F – 32) X 5/9 and F = (C X 9/5) + 32
Sociology is the subject you learned without realizing you learned it. This is because as one wends their way through discussions of news, politics, culture and more, the following terms are encountered many, many times. Consider this list a refresher.
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE: SOCIOLOGY
Sociology: The study of human social life, including the study of class structures; political structures; inequalities; culture; institutions; relationships; group dynamics and more
Socialization: The ongoing process by which individuals learn social norms, including family-led primary socialization as well as secondary socialization from others
Society: A collection of people who share space and culture
Culture: The shared features of a group that might include values, language, food and much more
Subculture: A group that promotes values and activities that are different from and sometimes contrary to those of the dominant culture
Group: Two or more people who interact regularly, have a sense of belonging and have their own chosen norms
Aggregate: A collection of people who happen to be at the same place at the same time
Network: A series of loosely held social ties that can be important sources of information, contacts, and assistance for its members
Nuclear family: One or two primary caregivers and their children
Primary group: A group that has emotional intimacy, a great sense of belonging and meets frequently, such as a family
Secondary group: A group that is more formal and less personal than a primary group but still meets regularly, such as a workplace or neighborhood group
Reference group: A group people compare themselves with for purposes of self-evaluation
Group dynamics: The ways in which an individual’s thoughts and behaviors are influenced by their groups
Role: A set of behavioral norms and expectations
Value: A culturally and personally determined belief about what is right or wrong, desirable or undesirable
Ideology: A set of values on which people base their religious ideas, political beliefs, behavioral choices and more
More: A socially constructed guideline for behavior
Sanction: A socially constructed expression of approval or disapproval
Peer pressure: The social pressure applied by groups, often unintentionally, to encourage conformity
Social control: The ways a society encourages conformity to norms
Deviance: The violation of a norm
Stigma: A trait or characteristic people possess that causes them to lose social status
Taboo: A strongly held social norm
Social alienation: The rejection or incomplete integration of a person into a community
Groupthink: The tendency of people to follow the majority opinions of the group, leading to narrow, uncreative views and solutions
Social construction: A viewpoint created by a group
Social status: A person’s social rank in a particular setting
Status symbol: An outward manifestations of prestige, such as expensive clothing
Social capital: The non-monetary resources available to a person that stem from their human interaction, including information, opportunities, power and influence, liking, reputation, cooperation and more
Assimilation: The process whereby members of a group give up parts of their own culture in order to blend in to a new culture
Social integration: The degree to which an individual feels connected to the other people in his or her group or community
Resocialization: The learning of new norms and values that occurs when life circumstances change dramatically
Master status: The main trait or status that a person is known by, such as their occupation (i.e. stay-at-home mom)
Industrial society: A society that uses advanced sources of energy, rather than humans and animals, to run large machinery
Postindustrial society: A society that features an economy based on services and technology, not production
Developing nations: Countries that are in the process of becoming industrialized
First-world, second-world and third-world nations: An outmoded and offensive classification of countries according to their level of modernization, infrastructure and wealth
Socioeconomic status (SES): A calculation of one’s education, income, occupation and possibly ethnicity and gender that results in a nonscientific social categorization
Class warfare: The political tension and economic inequalities that exist between social classes
Social mobility: Movement up or down within the social hierarchy
Caste system: A social system based on ascribed statuses, traits or characteristics that people possess at birth
Class system: A social system based partly or largely on achieved statuses, traits or characteristics that are earned and chosen
Elite: A small group of powerful people who hold a disproportionate amount of wealth, privilege, political power, or skill in a society
Power elite: A small group of the most wealthy, powerful, and influential people in business, government, and the military that are thought to run a society
Nobility: The highest stratum of the estate system of stratification whose members had significant inherited wealth
Nouveau riche:The class of people whose wealth has been around only for a generation or two. The name comes from the Latin phrase for “new money.”
Bourgeoisie: In Marxist theory, the class of people who own the industrial means of production, to whom the working class sells their services
Proletariat: In Marxist theory, the working class people
Poverty level: An estimate set by the federal government of the minimum income that a family needs to survive
Gentrification: The changes that occur when wealthier residents and businesses move into a neighborhood or area in large numbers, including loss of unique local qualities; appropriation of unique qualities; and the pricing out of current residents
Race: A set of shared physical characteristics loosely based on place of origin
Ethnicity: A set of shared cultural characteristics, including nationality, language, religion, and traditions
Stereotype: An assumption people make about a person or a group, often on the basis of incorrect or incomplete information
Racial prejudice: The unavoidable mental associations and generalizations every person retains concerning race
Racial discrimination: A statement or act that seeks to remove power or dignity from a person of color
Racism: The systemic, institutionalized discrimination and prejudice that pervades every level of society, including workplaces, governments, the criminal justice system and many more
White supremacy: The assumed intellectual, cultural and moral superiority of white people, as opposed to people of color. The term was first used to refer to white people who worked for racial segregation and the oppression of people of color, but is now widely used to refer to the innumerable cultural messages that permeate Western society.
White privilege: The sum total of the many small and large benefits of being white
White fragility: The defensiveness displayed by many white people during discussions about race, which might lead them to provide overly simplistic solutions, dramatize their own suffering, display anger, avoid discussion, shut down discussion/change topic or focus, seek white solidarity and more
Multiculturalism: The existence and fair-minded acceptance of multiple cultural heritages living side by side
Pluralistic society: A society composed of many different races, ethnicities and cultures
Ethnocentrism: The tendency to judge another culture by the standards of one’s own culture
Microaggression: A statement or act that betrays a person’s racial prejudice and in some way diminishes a person of color but does not overtly discriminate against them. An example is a careless statement about a person’s hair texture or not looking at a person of color when talking to a group.
Institutionalized racism: The ways in which systems of society, such as the education, employment, criminal justice and healthcare systems, reinforce racial inequality and discrimination
The prison industrial complex: The network of private and government-run organizations that profit from mass incarceration
Mass incarceration: The legally sanctioned imprisonment of several million people in the United States, many of whom are people of color, and many of whom are required to provide very low-cost to free labor to U.S. corporations working through contracts with the prison system
The New Jim Crow: The modern system for denying numerous civil and other rights to people of color in the United States, particularly, but not limited to, people previously convicted of felony crimes. It includes laws which allow for unconstitutional acts, such as search and seizure without cause, racial profiling, targeted policing, cruel and unusual punishment, unfair trials and others; laws and other practices that deny people with felony records access to job opportunities, business licenses, gun licenses, housing, food assistance, insurance, loans, educational assistance and more; laws that deny people with felony records the right to vote, serve on a jury or perform other civic duties; and more.
Contact hypothesis: A hypothesis stating that prejudice declines when people in an in-group become more familiar with the customs, norms, food, music, and attitudes of people in an out-group
Disenfranchisement: The revocation of a person’s rights, including their right to vote
The Other: A person or group of people thought to be different, even alien, by another person or group
Gender socialization: The tendency for boys and girls to be socialized differently
Sex: One’s anatomical gender
Gender: One’s felt or experienced gender
Cisgender: The quality of having the same anatomical and experienced gender
Transgender: The quality of having an experienced gender different from one’s anatomical gender
Transsexual: A person who has had gender reassignment surgery
Non-binary gender: An umbrella term for genders that fall somewhere in the middle of the gender spectrum and are neither strictly male or female
Queer theory: A field of critical theory that interprets literature, culture and history through the lens of non-binary gender issues
Patriarchy: A society in which men hold most of the power, including political, moral, financial and social power, and places of leadership
Auguste Comte: The founder of sociology as a scientific pursuit who argued that industrialization was to blame for class struggle
Karl Marx: An early sociologist who theorized that capitalism was the cause of class struggle and who argued that sociology should include not just facts, but social critique
Human rights: Rights many believe all people are entitled to, such as freedom of religion, speech and education
Institution: A set of norms surrounding the carrying out of a function necessary for the survival of a society
Bureaucracy: An institution with a hierarchy of rigid, rule-bound officials
Neocolonialism: A theory concerning the tendency of the most industrialized nations to exploit less developed countries politically and economically
Hegemony: The political, economic, or military predominance or control of one state over others
Cultural relativism: The theory that in order to understand the traits of another culture, one must study them within the context of that culture
Secularization: The transformation of a society from close identification with religious values and institutions toward nonreligious values and secular institutions
Urbanization: The process by which a large percentage of a population migrates toward urban centers
White-collar crime: Nonviolent crime committed by middle class professionals, often in the context of the workplace
Victimless crime: Crimes in which laws are violated but that lack an identifiable victim
Recidivism: The tendency of convicted criminals to repeat offenses
Consumerism: The acquisition of goods and services in ever-increasing amounts
Conspicuous consumption: The acquiring of luxury goods and services with the goal of public display
Meritocracy: A system in which positions are given according to individual merit
The American Dream: The idea that all people, regardless of the conditions into which they were born and their current social economic status, should have the chance to succeed
Social Darwinism: The late-nineteenth century theory that stronger people increase in wealth and power while weaker people decrease in the same
Primogeniture: A law stipulating that only a first-born son could inherit his father’s wealth
Before you debate, learn your stuff. Here are some of the terms you need to know in order to do your civic duties well.
Note that some political terms are not mutually exclusive; for example, the U.S. can be described as a democracy, a republic, a capitalist country or a federation. Also keep in mind that there is a great deal of flexibility and variation in many of these terms. Use these definitions as generalizations to aid in your understanding, not as a definitive description.
Politics: The complicated, multi-part process of choosing laws and lawmakers and carrying out other duties of political office
Government: A state-run institution that is tasked with maintaining order, protecting citizens, and promoting the general welfare of society by making and enforces laws and carrying out many other specified services, such as education and infrastructure building and maintenance
Political science: The study of political history, processes, people and ideas
Political party: A named group that shares political preferences and seeks to have their representatives elected
Suffrage: The right and ability to vote in an election
Political power: The ability to control or influence politics
Political legitimacy: The acceptance of a governing authority by its citizens
Political authority: The ability of a governing authority to govern without the use of force
Sovereignty: The right of a state to govern itself without external interference. In some cases, this right may be limited by international law, treaties and other considerations.
Political ideology: A set of beliefs about the right, practical and preferable function, structure and powers of government
Party identification: Loyalty to a political party, whether or not one is an official member of that party
Democracy: A political system in which citizens have the right and ability to vote for their laws and governmental leaders, either directly or through elected representatives
Monarchy: A form of government that is led by a supreme leader whose powers vary by state. In a constitutional monarchy, the monarch is limited and guided by a constitution, the foundational law of the land. An emirate is a form of monarchy ruled by an emir (the ruler of a Muslim state). A sultanate is ruled by a sultan.
Oligarchy: A form of government that is led by a small group of individuals, usually wealthy and well-connected ones
Dictatorship: A form of government in which a single ruler has absolute power. In most cases, leaders of this type of government create a legal framework that justifies their actions.
Constitutional democracy: A democracy in which the rights and powers of the people are described in a constitution, which is the foundational law of the land
Republic: A form of government in which the people elect representative leaders to carry out their goals
Democratic republic: A type of republic in which the representatives are elected through a democratic process
Presidential government: A republic with a separate executive branch from the legislative branch that is led by a president
Parliamentary government: A form of government in which the executive branch, including main leader and an advisory cabinet, is chosen by a legislature or parliament. The leader is called a prime minister or a chancellor. This branch can be dissolved by the parliament and can in turn dissolve the parliament.
Federation: A form of government in which a group of individual states or provinces are united under a central government with limited powers
Confederacy: A looser form of government in which the member states or provinces retain almost all of their sovereignty and autonomy, with the central government having very limited powers
Confederation: A general term that can refer to any political association in which several states or provinces join together for a common purpose
Theocracy: A form of government in which a deity or religion, as interpreted by religious professionals, is supreme
Feudalism: A hierarchical political and social system that dominated Europe and Japan during the Middle Ages in which peasants worked for and were loyal to knights, knights worked for and were loyal to lords and lords worked for and were loyal to kings. Territory disputes were common due to political instability.
English colony: A territory or region that was controlled and governed by the British Empire, with varying degrees of autonomy and self-government
U.S. protectorate: A state or territory that is under the protection and influence of the United States, but is not fully incorporated as a part of the United States and has some degree of autonomy and self-government
Tribal nation: A sovereign yet dependent nation that must follow federal law but not all state laws
Non-government organization (NGO): A private, non-profit entity that works towards social, environmental, or humanitarian goals, often independent of government
Regime: Any particular government that is in power at a particular time. The word usually carries negative connotations.
The political spectrum: A way of organizing political ideologies according to the amount of government control and, conversely, the amount of individual freedom they espouse. Commonly, though not always, it is viewed as a straight line, giving rise to the “left-right” terminology. It is as follows, starting at the right: anarchy; libertarian capitalism; conservative capitalism; progressive liberal capitalism; socialism; and communism. Fascism/totalitarianism is often considered to be a far-right ideology, though it is more similar to communism.
Liberalism: In the U.S., a political ideology promoting social and economic reform, higher taxes and greater governmental power. It is associated with the Democratic Party. An economic liberal espouses only or mainly the ideology’s economic ideas, and a social liberal espouses only or mainly the ideology’s social values. In Europe, the term is used differently, signifying an ideology closer to what Americans call conservativism, and the word progressivism is used to describe what Americans call liberalism.
Conservatism: A political ideology promoting free markets, restricted government, efficient use of government resources and traditional social values. In the U.S., it is associated with the Republican Party. An economic conservative espouses only or mainly the ideology’s economic ideas, and a social conservative espouses only or mainly the ideology’s social values.
Capitalism: A political system or ideology based on private ownership, free-market competition and the profit motive
Socialism: A political system or ideology in which democratically elected leaders attempt to fairly redistribute wealth; eliminate or greatly reduce economic inequality; provide universal access to essential goods and services such as healthcare and education; and give workers greater control over the means of production
Communism: A political system or ideology in which private ownership of property, businesses and capital is banned and the state, usually run by a small group of leaders, controls everything. The state claims that all people share ownership of all resources, though in practice, it owns everything. Leaders are not elected democratically.
Libertarianism: A political system or ideology that seeks to maximize the freedom of the individual and minimize the size and powers of the government
Anarchy: A political system or ideology that seeks to abolish hierarchical forms of government in favor of cooperative systems
Totalitarianism: A political system or ideology in which state authority is total and often brutally enforced
Fascism: A form of totalitarianism that existed in several nations during World War II that was characterized by extreme militarism and nationalism
Nazism: National Socialism, the form of fascism that existed in Germany prior to and during World War II after the Nazi Party came into power
Marxism: A form of communism devised by Karl Marx in the late nineteenth century that he claimed would free the proletariat (workers) from exploitation by capitalists (business owners), resulting in a socialist system and classless society in which the means of production are owned collectively by the workers
Welfare capitalism: A form of capitalism in which a free-market economy is combined with an extensive social welfare system, including universal health care, education and more
State capitalism: A form of capitalism in which the government controls or heavily influences the economy, often through state-owned enterprises or by providing subsidies to certain industries
Laissez-faire capitalism: A form of capitalism in which the government exercises minimal control of the economy
Nationalism: A political ideology that holds that a nation should be fully sovereign and that citizens should be loyal to their nation above all else
Isolationism: A political ideology that holds that a nation should practice non-intervention or low intervention in international affairs
Egalitarianism: A belief in the inherent and rightful political, social and economic equality of all people
Political corruption: The use of entrusted powers by government officials for private gain. This includes extortion, cronyism, nepotism, patronage, graft, pork barreling, embezzlement and more.
Extortion: Obtaining or attempting to obtain something through force or threats
Bribery: Obtaining or attempting to obtain something through a monetary payment
Graft: The illegal use of public monies for private gain. It can take many forms, including embezzlement, bribery, granting lucrative contracts to associates who offer monetary kickbacks and more.
Embezzlement: Theft or misappropriation of public or institutional money or property for private use
Cronyism: The favoring of friends for political office or other benefits
Nepotism: The favoring family members for political office or other benefits
Patronage: The practice of giving government jobs or contracts to people as a reward for their political support
Pork barreling: The use of power and position to secure funding for local projects that may not be necessary or cost-effective in order to gain political support from constituents. This is frequently done by adding riders to bills and exchanging political favors.
Rider: An addition to a law that might or might not have any connection to the issue the law addresses, added to gain favor with the representatives who benefit from it
Conflict of interest: An ethically problematic situation in which a person has two different responsibilities that might have conflicting goals, resulting in difficult choices on the part of that person. An example of this is a state representative who is also a member of the board of a large company, such as a drug manufacturer, who might pressure the representative to pass legislation that is amenable to their cause.
Gerrymandering: Manipulating the boundaries of an electoral district in order to give one political party an advantage over another. This can be done by either packing opposition voters into a single district (thus wasting their votes) or spreading them across multiple districts (thus diluting their power).
Lobbying: The attempt by individuals and large organizations to influence lawmakers in their policy decisions through a variety of techniques such as persuasion, information, material incentives, economic leverage, disruption, entertainment and litigation. Professional lobbyists work for large corporations. They sometimes get only two or three minutes of an official’s time to make their case. Former government officials often become lobbyists and earn a high salary as such.
Soft money: Unregulated and sometimes unlimited donations given to political organizations rather than directly to candidates in order to avoid contribution limits.It was outlawed for federal elections but loopholes are constantly being sought.
Partisan journalism: Journalism that is clearly biased in favor of a political party or ideology
Yellow journalism: Journalism that relies on sensationalism, exaggeration, and often unethical practices to attract its audience
Interest group: An organization that advocates for the political interests of a specific group of people, such as a business, a labor union or an environmentalist group. They aren’t allowed to endorse candidates, but they are allowed to contribute to political campaigns through PACs.
Political action committee (PAC): An organization that advocates for a special interest group by making financial contributions to political campaigns, writing legislation, and more
Super PAC: A type of PAC that can raise and spend unlimited amounts of money to support or oppose candidates, as long as they do not coordinate directly with the candidate’s campaign
Grassroots activism: The process of mobilizing large numbers of people to achieve shared goals through techniques such as letter writing campaigns, rallies and marches, petitions, initiatives, lobbying, advertising, local meeting attendance, campaigning, writing policy education materials and more
Economic issues: Political questions that concern the production, distribution, and consumption of goods, capital and services in a society. These include questions surrounding taxation, government spending, government regulation, trade and more.
Social issues: Political questions that concern matters of social justice, equality, equity and government-supplied benefits to the public. These include questions surrounding abortion, affirmative action, animal rights, capital punishment, censorship, freedom of speech, freedom of the press, Internet taxation, climate change, disarmament and nonproliferation, drugs, imprisonment, education, foreign aid, gay rights, gun rights, health care, immigration, lobbying, nuclear testing, political corruption, race relations, separation of church and state, space policy, welfare and more.
Foreign policy: A country’s strategies and measures regarding international issues, including issues of diplomacy, foreign aid, trade agreements, military force, political alliances, global human rights, nuclear proliferation, environmental concerns, terrorism and more
Public policy: A country’s strategies and measures regarding issues that concern the general policy, including welfare, national security, the environment and much more
Constituents: Voters and other citizens who are represented by elected political leaders
Bureaucracy: A large and complex organization that is typically hierarchical in structure, with specialized roles and procedures for decision-making and implementation
Political machine: A political organization that attempts to control a government through manipulation of elections, patronage and more
Grant: A financial award given by a government agency or private organization to a special program in response to their written grant proposal
Citizen legislation: Legislation that is initiated and voted on by citizens rather than by legislators
National debt: The total amount of money that a country’s government owes to its creditors, which can include both domestic and foreign investors, as well as other countries
Colonization: The takeover of a nation or people by a foreign nation, usually by force
The British Conservative Party: One of the two main political policies in the U.K., which advocates for free-market economic policies and conservative social values
The British Labour Party: One of the two main political parties in the U.K., which advocates for progressive values such as universal healthcare, affordable housing, and workers’ rights
Are you the kind of person whose soul is stirred by a stirring presentation of “The Star-Spangled Banner”? Maybe it brings to mind the story of the final battle of the Revolutionary War, when …. Whether or not this describes your internal response to the land that we love, understanding the political process–and participating in it–can be important … maybe even satisfying at times, too.
Most of the following information comes from USA.gov. Direct quotes are indicated as such. To read the documents described here, visit Archives.gov.
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE: AMERICAN GOVERNMENT
The United States of America: The democratic republic located in North America that includes fifty states, several territories and tribal nations, and the District of Columbia (the federal capital city which is not part of any state). Its states are partly self-governing but subject to federal restrictions which are outlined in the federal constitution. Residents of this country’s territories have varying rights and levels of independence. Its government includes three main branches: the legislative branch, the executive branch, and the judicial branch. Its four main governmental levels are the federal level; the state level; the county level; and the city level. There are also water management districts, fire management districts, library districts and other governmental units.
The Constitution of the United States: The foundational law of the land, which outlines the nation’s governmental structure; its basic laws; its purpose; and the rights of citizens including freedom of speech, press, religion, the right to bear arms and more. Twenty-seven amendments have been added to it over the years concerning such matters as voting rights and term limits, and it is open to interpretation by the Supreme Court as it rules on specific matters.
The Declaration of Independence:The 1776 document that called for independence from Great Britain and marked the beginning of the American Revolution. It was written mostly by Thomas Jefferson and agreed to by the American colonies, and it begins by stating that all people are created equal and have certain inalienable rights, such as the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.
The Bill of Rights: The first ten amendments to the Constitution, each of which contains multiple civil rights. In order they appear, they are: freedom of religion, speech, the press, peaceable assembly, government petition; the right to create a militia and bear arms; the right to refuse to house soldiers; the freedom from unreasonable searches and seizures unless there is a warrant with probable cause; the right to a jury trial, freedom from double jeopardy, the right to choose not to testify against onesself (this is called “pleading the fifth”), the right to not be denied life, liberty or property without due process of law and the right to not have property taken for public use without compensation; the right to a speedy trial by an impartial jury, the right to be informed of the accusation, to be confronted by the witnesses against him, to have counsel (a lawyer), and to have the opportunity to find witnesses in his favor; right to a trial by jury in civil cases in the federal court (though this type of case is no longer heard in the federal court system); freedom from excessive bail, excessive fines and cruel and unusual punishment; the retaining of other civil rights not listed in the Constitution; and the rights of states and the people to powers not specifically delegated to the federal government and also not prohibited by it to the states.
The system of checks and balances: The ability of each branch of government to limit the actions of the other branches so that no single branch holds too much power or is able to take control of the others. The executive branch is able to veto legislation created by the legislative branch, a decision the legislature can overturn by a 2/3 majority; the legislative branch is able to confirm or reject the executive branch’s nominees and can even remove the president from office in exceptional circumstances; and the judicial branch can overturn laws created by the legislative branch.
State government: The level of government that oversees the state and is subject to federal laws and limitations. These governments consist of the same three branches as does the federal government: executive, legislative, and judicial. Also like the federal government, they have their own constitutions, legislatures, court systems and codes of laws that can differ from each other. State constitutions can be amended when both the legislature and the citizens vote for the amendment. States are prohibited from forming alliances with foreign governments; declaring war; coining money, and imposing duties on imports or exports. Funding for state budgets comes from income taxes, sales taxes, excise taxes, corporate income taxes, lotteries, business license fees and more.
County: A subdivision of a state. In some states, counties have their own governments, while in others, they are merely geographical splits and the towns and cities provide the government of them
The executive branch: The branch of government tasked with enforcing laws. It is made up of the president, the vice president, and the Cabinet members. It oversees many government agencies, such as the Forest Service and the drug Enforcement Agency, that support its work.
The legislative branch: The branch of government tasked with making laws. It has two parts: the Senate and the House of Representatives. In addition to making laws, it confirms or rejects the executive branch’s nominations for various agencies and the Supreme Court; declares war; collects taxes; borrows money; and revises and approves the annual budget. It includes many government agencies, such as the Library of Congress, as well.
The judicial branch: The branch of government made up of the Supreme Court and all other federal courts, which is tasked with interpreting and applying federal law
The Congress: The name of the combined Senate and House of Representatives
The Senate: The part of the Congress that is made up of 100 elected officials, two from each state, who are called senators. Senators serve six-year terms.
The House of Representatives: The part of the Congress that is made up of 435 elected officials who are called representatives or Congresspersons. Each state elects a different number of Congresspersons based on its population. Congresspersons serve two-year terms.
The Supreme Court: The highest judicial body in the U.S., which is made up of nine justices (judges) who are nominated by the president and approved by the Senate by a simple majority. All nine hear and vote on each case, and the majority opinion is the decision. Justices write opinions to explain their decisions, but dissenting opinions can also be written. The justices hear federal court cases that have been appealed after being heard by lower federal courts. They also hear some state cases that deal with federal law. They hear a few cases orally and review others on paper.
The president: The member of the executive branch tasked with serving as head of state, director of foreign policy, and commander-in-chief of the U.S. military. They sign the budget and other bills into law and can veto bills Congress decides on. The president serves a four-year term and can be elected no more than twice.
The vice president: The member of the executive branch tasked with supporting the president; serving as the presiding officer of the Senate; and assuming the presidency when and if the president is unable to carry out their duties. The vice president serves a four-year term and can be elected no more than twice.
The Cabinet: The president’s advisors, who include the vice president, heads of executive departments (such as the Secretary of State, the Secretary of Defense, and the Secretary of the Treasury) and other high-ranking government officials who are nominated by the president and approved by the Senate. Each Each advises the president in their area of expertise.
Joint Chiefs of Staff: A group of high-ranking military leaders who advise the president and the Secretary of Defense on military matters
The National Security Council (NSC): A collection of security policy experts, including heads of various government agencies such as the Secretary of State, the Secretary of Defense, and the Director of National Intelligence, who advise the president and the Joint Chiefs of Staff on national security issues
The Secretary of State: On the federal level, the head of the U.S. Department of State who is responsible for conducting U.S. foreign policy and managing diplomatic relations with other countries. On the state level, they are the official who maintains and oversees public records and documents, such as corporate filings, election results, official state archives and more. In some states, they are also responsible for managing state-level elections; regulating business activities; overseeing professional licensing; and more.
Governor: The chief executive of the state government. They appoint individuals to various state agencies, boards, and commissions; create and propose the state budget; enforce state laws; manage state agencies; grant pardons and reprieves; serve as commander-in-chief of the state’s National Guard; and veto bills passed by the state legislature (which can be overridden by more than a simple majority). Some also have the power of a line-item veto.
Attorney General: The chief legal official of a state or jurisdiction, who is responsible for representing the government in all court cases as well as providing legal counsel to other government agencies
Auditor: The independent official responsible for ensuring that government funds are spent legally and properly by reviewing documents and the like
Treasurer: The official who is responsible for managing the financial assets and liabilities of a state, municipality, or other government entity. They invest funds, manage cash flow, pay out funds for government expenditures and more.
Superintendent of Public Instruction: The highest-ranking education official on the state level, who is responsible for overseeing the state’s public education system by creating programs, ensuring schools are meeting state and federal standards and more
Mayor: The highest elected official of a town or city. They are usually responsible for managing the city’s budget, making policy decisions, and overseeing the city’s operations.
Republican: A member of the Republican Party, one of the two major U.S. political parties, which values smaller government, lower taxes, a more laissez-faire economy and more freedom from government intervention
Democrat: A member of the Democratic Party, one of the two major U.S. political parties, which values social justice, higher taxes for the wealthy, greater government intervention in business and economic processes and a more robust welfare system
Independent: Individuals who do not belong to or identify with any political party
Third party: Any of many U.S. political parties other than the Democratic or Republican parties. Two examples are the Green Party and the Libertarian Party.
Bill: A proposed law, which is proposed by a representative, sponsored by another representative, and introduced to the House of Representatives. It goes to the proper committee, where changes can be made. After approval by the committee, it is reported to the House floor, debated, and voted on. It is then referred to the Senate, where it goes through a similar process. Finally, it is sent to the President, who either passes or vetoes the bill. If vetoed, it can still become law if both houses pass it with a two-thirds majority.
Petition: A formal request for a legislative action, usually for an initiative to be placed on the ballot for direct vote or for a referendum to be proposed and voted on by the legislature. They are often made by a citizen or group of citizens and usually require a certain number of signatures that varies by issue and location.
Initiative: A bill that is drafted by, proposed by and voted on by citizens, bypassing the legislature
Referendum: A bill that is drafted by the legislature, proposed by either the legislature or by citizens, and voted on by the citizens and that may or may not be binding
Recall: The removal of elected officials from office through a citizen vote
Line-item veto: The power of an executive governmental authority to reject specific provisions of a bill without vetoing the entire bill
General election: The final election in which voters choose from among the candidates nominated by each political party, as well as any independent candidates who have qualified to be on the ballot. To be eligible for public office at the federal level, a candidate must be a resident of their state for a certain number of years, and a presidential candidate must be a natural-born U.S. citizen. Congresspeople must be at least 25 years old, while senators must be at least 30 years old and presidents and vice presidents must be at least 35 years old. Additional requirements apply to state and local public offices.
Primary election: An election prior to the general election in which voters select the candidates who will be named on each party’s ticket. In an open primary, voters do not have to be registered with a political party to vote in that party’s primary. They can choose which party’s primary to vote in on the day of the election. In a closed primary, only voters who are registered members of a particular political party can vote in that party’s primary election.
Midterm election: An election that takes place halfway through the president’s term, in which Congresspersons and some Senators are elected and in which turnout is typically lower than in presidential election years
Presidential primary: A primary election in which presidential candidates for the major parties are chosen. Winners go on to compete in the national party conventions, where the party officially nominates their candidate.
Electoral College: A group of electors from every state called that cast the official votes for the president and vice president. They usually vote according to the popular vote. The number of electors in each state is equal to its number of representatives in both houses of Congress. The candidate who wins a majority of the electoral votes (270 out of 538) becomes the president, and the president and vice president are voted on together.
Office-block ballot: A ballot that groups candidates by office name
Party-column ballot: A ballot that groups candidate by party affiliation
Split-ticket ballot: A ballot that allows for voting for candidates of different parties in the same election
Straight-ticket ballot: A ballot that only allows for voting for candidates who are all of the same party
The federal budget: A detailed spending plan for the following fiscal year that is decided on by the Congress. The money for it comes from taxes (from individuals and businesses); loans from other countries (savings bonds, notes and Treasury bills that are sold); social security payments; and miscellaneous other sources, such as fines and licenses. It outlines spending for lawfully protected agencies (such as Medicare, Social Security, Medicaid); interest on the national debt; discretionary agencies and programs (those Congress is not required by law to support but votes to support in that year’s budget); and national defense. The process of creating it is as follows: the president creates a budget; it is reviewed by Congress, who holds hearings on it; committees and subcommittees make revisions to it; Congress passes it; and the President signs it into law.
Appropriation bills: The twelve bills that Congress proposes and attaches to the federal budget that contain all of the discretionary spending for non-mandatory programs like Social Security and Medicare
Filibuster: A technique used by Senators to prevent the voting on of a bill, even if the bill has a majority approval
The Pledge of Allegiance: A statement made while standing at attention and facing the flag with the right hand over the heart that is meant to show loyalty to the nation. It is as follows: “I pledge allegiance to the flag of the United States of America, and to the republic for which it stands, one nation under God, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all.”
The flag’s symbolism: The flag represents the shared values and history of the American people, including the values of liberty, democracy and patriotism. The thirteen red and white stripes represent the thirteen original colonies, while the fifty white stars represent the fifty states. The red color represents valor and bravery. The white color represents purity and innocence, and the blue color represents vigilance, perseverance and justice.
Rules for flag flying: The flag shouldn’t be flown in inclement weather unless it’s an all-weather flag; when displayed at night, the flag should be properly illuminated; at certain times, as in a time of national mourning, the flag should be hung at half-mast; the flag should not be flown upside down unless as a signal of distress; when flown with another flag, it should be placed to your left when crossed; when stored, flag should be folded into a triangle with the union (blue section) visible; if damaged, the flag should be disposed of with dignity, usually by burning; the flag should not touch anything below it or rest on the ground; and the flag should never be used for advertising purposes or as a decoration
Major U.S. welfare programs: Social security; medicare and medicaid; supplemental security income (SSI) (aid to elderly and disabled people who do not qualify for social security benefits); food stamps; the earned income tax credit (EITC); public/subsidized housing; rent vouchers; unemployment benefits
