We love our bodies, don’t we? It’s just so nice to understand what’s going on inside of all of this skin.
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE: ANATOMY
The eleven systems of the human body: Skeletal system, respiratory system, muscular system, nervous system, digestive system, reproductive system, circulatory system, endocrine system, lymphatic/immune system, integumentary system, urinary system
Skeletal system: The system of the body that includes the bones and cartilage, that creates a framework for the body and that provides hard surfaces for the muscles to contract on
Bones: The organs that form the structural framework of the body. The four types are flat (such as the ribs), long (such as the femur), irregular (such as the vertebrae), short (such as the phelanges).
Cranium: The skull bones
Mandible: The jawbone
Scapula: The shoulder blade bones
Clavicle: The collar bone
Sternum: The breastbone
Vertebrae: The bones that make up the spine
Pelvis: The set of bones that includes the hip bones, the sacrum and the coccyx
Coccyx: The tailbone
The sacrum: The large, triangular bone located at the base of the spine and between the two hip bones of the pelvis
Humerus: The upper arm bone
Radius: The bone on the thumb side of the lower arm
Ulna: The bone on the pinky side of the lower arm
Femur: The upper leg bone
Tibia: The shin bone on the inside of the lower leg that is larger than the fibula
Fibula: The bone on the outside of the lower leg that is smaller than the fibula
Patella: The kneecap
Metatarsals: The foot bones
Tarsals: The ankle bones
Carpals: The wrist bones
Metacarpals: The bones in the palm of the hand
Phalanges: The finger and toe bones
Joint: The places where bones meet, most of which are movable
Bone marrow: The soft, spongy tissue located in the cavities of many bones that produces blood cells and stores fat
Cartilage: The connective tissue similar to bone that is more flexible than bone but more rigid than muscle. Most baby bones start as cartilage and slowly turn into bone as the baby grows.
Muscular system: The system of the body that includes muscles, tendons and ligaments and enables the body to move
Muscles: Stretchy tissues that connect to bones that contract and relax, allowing for movement and stability. While contracting, muscles become shorter and harder and may bulge.
Voluntary muscles: Muscles that respond to conscious intention (such as the quads)
Involuntary muscles: Muscles that move without conscious intention (such as the heart)
Skeletal muscles: The muscles located on the bones of the skeletal system that can be voluntarily contracted
Cardiac muscles: The heart and related muscles
Visceral muscles: The smooth muscles inside organs (such as the intestines and bladder)
Abdominal muscles: The muscles in the front and sides of the abdominal wall
Biceps: The muscles on the front of the upper arms
Deltoids: The muscles on the top of the shoulders
Gluteus muscles: The buttocks muscles
Hamstrings: The muscles on the back of the thighs
Obliques: The muscles on the sides of the torso
Pectorals: The muscles on the front of the upper chest
Quadriceps: The muscles on the front of the thighs
Triceps: The muscles on the back of the upper arms
Trapezius: The muscles on the upper and mid-back that help with neck stability
Circulatory system: The system of the body that circulates blood via the heart, arteries and veins, delivering oxygen and nutrients to organs and cells and carrying their waste products away. It also regulates body temperature.
The parts of the heart: Four chambers (two atria and two ventricles); valves to keep blood moving the right direction through the heart; and veins and arteries that carry blood to and from the lungs and the rest of the body
Arteries: Thick, muscular blood vessels, most of which move oxygen-rich blood away from the heart to tissues and organs
Veins: Thinner-walled blood vessels, most of which move oxygen-depleted blood from tissues and organs toward the heart. They have valves that keep the blood flowing in the right direction.
Capillaries: The fine branching blood vessels that help move blood around the body
White blood cells: The cells of the immune system that are involved in protecting the body against both infectious disease and foreign invaders
Red blood cells: The cells that are made in the bone marrow and make up blood, and that contain hemoglobin, a protein that carries oxygen
Digestive system: The system of the body that includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines and more and that is responsible for the mechanical and chemical processes that provide nutrients and eliminate waste
Esophagus: The tube that connects the mouth to the stomach
Stomach: The sac that stores and breaks down food before it moves to the intestines and other places in the body
Liver: The body’s largest organ by mass, which processes nutrients, removes toxins from the blood and stores food energy in the form of glycogen
Respiratory system: The system of the body that includes the lungs and the passages that lead to them and that allows for the breathing in of oxygen and breathing out of carbon dioxide
Windpipe/trachea: The tube that connects the pharynx and larynx to the lungs, allowing the passage of air
Primary bronchus: The tubes between the trachea and each lung. After passing through the bronchus, air goes into the lungs. Then oxygen goes into secondary and tertiary bronchi, bronchioles, air sacs and capillaries and from there is distributed throughout the body.
Lungs: The pair of spongy, air-filled organs located in the chest that are responsible for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the body and the environment during breathing
Diaphragm: The flat sheet of muscle lying under the lungs that moves up and flattens when a person breathes in and moves down when a person breathes out
Voice box/larynx: The organ in the neck located on the top part of the trachea just below the root of the tongue that contains vocal cords, which vibrate to produce sound when air passes through them during exhalation
Vocal cords: Two bands of muscle in the larynx that can tighten as air passes over them to create a vibration and allow for speaking during breathing. Shorter, faster cords, as those of many females, create higher pitched sounds.
Integumentary system: The system of the body that includes skin, hair, nails, sweat and other exocrine glands that is responsible for organ protection, heat regulation and more
Skin: The soft outer tissue covering that contains the epidermis, the dermis and subcutaneous tissues (fat cells)
Melanin: A natural pigment found in most organisms that protects from UV rays
Pores: Tiny openings on the surface of the skin that allow sweat, oil, and other substances to pass through
Keratin: The tough, protective material that the epidermis, hair and nails are made of
Hair follicles: The structures located at the base of hairs in the skin that produce and grow hair. Their shape determines whether the hair is curly, wavy or straight.
Urinary/renal system: The system of the body that includes the kidneys, the bladder and the tubes connected to them that is responsible for regulating the amount of water and electrolytes in the body, filtering blood and excreting waste materials
Bladder: A muscular, balloon-like sac that holds urine before it is excreted
Urethra: The tube that connects the bladder to the urinary meatus for the removal of urine from the body
Kidneys: The two bean-shaped organs located in the back of the abdomen on either side of the spine that filter blood and produce urine
Lymphatic system/immune system: The system of the body that includes lymphatic vessels, nodes, other organs and lymph and that is responsible for preventing infection, filtering waste products, regulating fluid balance and helping with nutrient absorption
Lymph: The fluid that contains white blood cells, waste products and more that circulates throughout the body through vessels, nodes and organs
Lymph nodes: The small, bean-shaped organs located throughout the body that filter lymph and it passes through them
Endocrine system: The system of the body that includes glands and other organs that produce and secrete hormones into the bloodstream
Endocrine glands: Small organs that make hormones
Hormones: Chemicals that are located throughout the body that act as messengers to regulate a large variety of body functions
Pituitary gland: The pea-sized endocrine gland located at the base of the brain that produces and secretes several important hormones, including prolactin and growth hormone
Adrenal glands: The twin endocrine glands that are located on top of each kidney that produce and secrete adrenaline, cortisol, androgens and more
Thyroid gland: The endocrine gland located in the neck in front of the trachea that makes thyroxine and other hormones that control metabolism
The pancreas: The endocrine gland located in the abdomen behind the stomach that produces and secretes insulin and glucagon, which regulate glucose levels in the body. It also releases digestive enzymes into the small intestine.
Adrenaline: A hormone produced by the adrenal glands that prepares the body for “fight or flight” response to stress or danger
Cortisol: A hormone produced by the adrenal glands that helps to regulate various bodily functions, including metabolism, immune response, and stress response
Oxytocin: A hormone produced by the hypothalamus and released by the pituitary gland that plays a role in social bonding, maternal behavior, and sexual reproduction
Pitocin: A synthetic form of the hormone oxytocin that is sometimes used to induce or augment labor during childbirth
Testosterone: A hormone primarily produced by the testicles that plays a key role in the development of male reproductive tissues and secondary sexual characteristics, as well as in maintaining bone density and muscle mass
Estrogen: A group of hormones primarily produced by the ovaries that play a key role in the development and regulation of the female reproductive system and secondary sexual characteristics
Progesterone: A hormone primarily produced by the ovaries that plays a key role in regulating the menstrual cycle, preparing the uterus for pregnancy, and maintaining a healthy pregnancy
The nervous system: The system of the body that includes the sensory organs, the brain, the spinal cord and the nerves that is responsible for collecting and processing information from the senses and coordinating body movement
The central nervous system: The brain and spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system: The network of nerves throughout the body that connects the brain and spinal cord to the rest of the body
Autonomic nervous system: The part of the nervous system that regulates and controls involuntary bodily functions, including heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, digestion, and glandular secretion. It includes the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
Sympathetic nervous system: The part of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for a “fight or flight” response by increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration, while decreasing digestive activity and blood flow to non-essential organs
Parasympathetic nervous system: The part of the autonomic nervous system that promotes “rest and digest” functions by decreasing heart rate and respiration, while increasing digestive activity and blood flow to non-essential organs
Brain: The central organ of the nervous system, which is located under the skull and made up of billions of neurons and supporting cells that communicate through electrical signaling
Brain stem: The part of the brain that connects the brain to the spinal cord and that controls many automatic functions like heartbeat, breathing and blood pressure regulation
Spinal cord: The thick bundle of nerves located inside a tunnel in the backbone that joins the brain to the rest of the body
Neurons: Nerve cells, which include sensory, association and motor nerve cells
Nerves: Cord-like structures that contain nerve fibers and can be sensory, motor or mixed types
Motor nerves: Nerves that carry signals from the brain to the muscles to move
Nerve impulse: A brief electrical signal that moves through and between neurons
Neurotransmitters: Various chemical messengers such as serotonin and epinephrine that are released by neurons and allow them to communicate with each other
Sensory organs: Organs that send nerve impulses to the brain along nerves
Eyes: The seeing organs of the body, which contain a retina, cornea, pupil and optic nerve. Light enters the pupil through the clear cornea and lens. These bend the light rays so they form an upside down image on the retina and back of the eye. Rods and cones convert the image to nerve impulses which move along the optic nerve to the brain. Then the brain interprets the signal and turns the image right side up.
Stereoscopic vision: The perception of depth and three-dimensional structure, which is obtained through visual information from the eyes
Ears: The hearing organs of the body, which contain outer, middle and inner parts. The ear flap funnels and amplifies sound waves to the ear canal, then to the eardrum. The eardrum vibrates. These vibrations pass through bones and holes to the cochlea, then to fluid chambers. Tiny nerve cells in the fluid convert vibrations into nerve impulses, which go along the auditory nerve to the brain. Ears also help keep you balanced through the vestibular system, which senses the movement of fluid in the ducts and sends that information to the brain, which uses it to determine how the body as a whole is moving.
Chemoreceptors: The small organs in the nose and tongue that detect the chemicals responsible for smells and tastes and send this information to the brain
Nasal cavity: The large air-filled space located above and behind the nose that allows for breathing as well as filtering and humidifying incoming air
Cerebrum: The largest part of the brain, located at the front of the skull and divided into the right and left hemispheres, which is responsible for voluntary physical activity, thinking, sensation and emotion. It contains the frontal lobe, parietal, temporal and occipital lobes as well as the cerebral cortex.
Cerebral cortex: The outermost layer of the brain that is divided into four lobes (the occipital, parietal, temporal and frontal lobes) and that is responsible for perception/sensing, thinking, and voluntary muscle coordination
Frontal lobe: The part of the cerebrum that includes the prefrontal cortex and other areas and is responsible for decision making, voluntary physical activity, speech and more
Parietal lobe: The part of the cerebrum that is responsible for processing touch and temperature information, spacial awareness and more
Temporal lobe: The part of the cerebrum that includes the hippocampus and amygdala and other areas and is responsible for memory functions, processing auditory information and more
Occipital lobe: The part of the cerebrum that is responsible for processing visual information and more
Hypothalamus: The small but distinct area of the brain located near the amygdala at the base of the brain that controls body temperature, hunger, and thirst
Amygdala: The area of the brain located near the hippocampus at the base of the brain that is primarily associated with emotional processes, such as fear
Cerebellum: The part of the brain located at the back of the skull that is primarily responsible for muscle movement and balance
Corpus callosum: The large bundle of nerve fibers that connects the two hemispheres of the brain and allows them to integrate cognitive, emotional and bodily functions
The limbic system: The various parts of the brain, including the amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus, hypothalamus and more, that work together to regulate emotions, stress responses, aggression, social bonding, hunger, sexual desire and other reactions to external stimuli
Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep: Sleep that is characterized by rapid movement of the eyes, deep relaxation, and vivid dreams, which happens as part of each 90- to 120-minute sleep cycle
Reproductive system: The system of the body that includes sex organs and that is responsible for the production of offspring
Vagina: The elastic, muscular canal leading to the uterus in which penetrative sex takes place and out of which a baby exits the mother’s body
Vulva: The external genitals of the female, which include the labia, the clitoris, the vaginal opening and more
Clitoris: The small, highly sensitive organ located underneath the labia of females that swells with blood during sexual arousal and is covered by the clitoral hood
Labia: The two folds of skin that are part of the vulva
Cervix: The lower part of the uterus that contracts and opens during childbirth
Ovaries: The pair of endocrine glands located in the reproductive system of females that produce and release estrogen, progesterone and reproductive eggs (ova)
Fallopian tubes: The tubes leading from the ovaries to the uterus
Uterus: The organ in which the fetus grows and lives; the womb
Placenta: The organ that supplies nutrients, oxygen, hormones and more to the fetus and that also supports gas exchange, waste elimination, immune responses and heat regulation
Umbilical cord: The cord-like structure that connects the fetus to the placenta
Penis: The external male reproductive organ that also contains the urethra
Testes/testicles: The pair of oval-shaped endocrine glands located in the scrotum of males that produce testosterone and sperm cells (spermatozoa), which mix with other fluids during ejaculation to form semen
Prostate gland: A small gland located between the bladder and the penis in males that produces some of the fluid that makes up semen
Scrotum: The suspended dual-chambered sack of skin and smooth muscle that holds the two testicles
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE: MEDICAL SCIENCE
Infection: The invasion of an organism’s body tissues by disease-causing agents, their multiplication, and the reaction of host tissues to the infectious agents and the toxins they produce
Immunity: The balanced state that occurs when an organism is able to both resist infection and disease while not overresponding to infectious agents so that autoimmune problems don’t develop
Etiology: The cause or origin of a disorder or disease
Virus: A small pathogen that replicates only inside the living cells of other organisms and can cause illness
Pathogen: A germ, usually a microorganism like a bacteria or virus, that can cause illness
Drug: A natural or synthetic chemical substance other than food and water that, when introduced to the body, causes a temporary physiological change
Vaccine: A medication that usually contains weakened disease pathogens that is introduced to the body via vaccination in order to help stimulate the immune system to develop immunity to those pathogens
Antibiotics: A type of medication that kills or prevents the growth of bacteria in the body. They do not work against viruses.
Tumor: An abnormal and excessive growth of tissue that can form anywhere in the body and that starts as a neoplasm, then forms a mass. Benign tumors are non-cancerous and usually do not spread to other parts of the body. Malignant tumors are cancerous and can invade and damage nearby tissues and organs, as well as spread to other parts of the body through the bloodstream or lymphatic system.
Preventive medicine: Measures taken for disease prevention, as opposed to disease treatment
Conventional medicine: The mainstream medical practices that are widely accepted and used by the medical community, such as pharmaceutical drugs, surgery, and other scientifically-proven treatments. It is also known as Western medicine or allopathic medicine.
Alternative medicine: A wide range of health promoting techniques that are not part of conventional medicine, some of which are backed by research and some of which are not
Nutrients: The carbohydrates and fats that are burned for fuel in the body, as well as the vitamins, minerals and proteins that are used to make body parts, either by facilitating chemical reactions or by being used as actual material
Carbohydrates: Sugars, starches and fibers
Lipids: Fats, which are important for hormone synthesis, insulation, and cellular function
Amino acids: The building blocks of proteins, which are used by the body to build enzymes, hormones and body cells
Vitamin A: A nutrient that helps with vision and more
Vitamin C: A nutrient that helps with immune system functioning and more
Vitamin D: A nutrient that helps the body absorb calcium and more
Vitamin E: A nutrient that helps protect cells from damage and more
Vitamin K: A nutrient that helps with blood clotting and more
Calcium: A mineral that helps with bone and cartilage production and more
Iron: A mineral that helps with red blood cell production and with carrying oxygen throughout the body
Magnesium: A mineral that helps regulate blood pressure and blood sugar levels and more
Zinc: A mineral that helps with wound healing, immune system functioning and more
Potassium: A mineral that helps with fluid balance, muscle and nerve functioning and more
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