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Are you the kind of person whose soul is stirred by a stirring presentation of “The Star-Spangled Banner”? Maybe it brings to mind the story of the final battle of the Revolutionary War, when …. Whether or not this describes your internal response to the land that we love, understanding the political process–and participating in it–can be important … maybe even satisfying at times, too.

Most of the following information comes from USA.gov. Direct quotes are indicated as such. To read the documents described here, visit Archives.gov.

ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE: AMERICAN GOVERNMENT

The United States of America: The democratic republic located in North America that includes fifty states, several territories and tribal nations, and the District of Columbia (the federal capital city which is not part of any state). Its states are partly self-governing but subject to federal restrictions which are outlined in the federal constitution. Residents of this country’s territories have varying rights and levels of independence. Its government includes three main branches: the legislative branch, the executive branch, and the judicial branch. Its four main governmental levels are the federal level; the state level; the county level; and the city level. There are also water management districts, fire management districts, library districts and other governmental units.

The Constitution of the United States: The foundational law of the land, which outlines the nation’s governmental structure; its basic laws; its purpose; and the rights of citizens including freedom of speech, press, religion, the right to bear arms and more. Twenty-seven amendments have been added to it over the years concerning such matters as voting rights and term limits, and it is open to interpretation by the Supreme Court as it rules on specific matters.

The Declaration of Independence: The 1776 document that called for independence from Great Britain and marked the beginning of the American Revolution. It was written mostly by Thomas Jefferson and agreed to by the American colonies, and it begins by stating that all people are created equal and have certain inalienable rights, such as the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.

The Bill of Rights: The first ten amendments to the Constitution, each of which contains multiple civil rights. In order they appear, they are: freedom of religion, speech, the press, peaceable assembly, government petition; the right to create a militia and bear arms; the right to refuse to house soldiers; the freedom from unreasonable searches and seizures unless there is a warrant with probable cause; the right to a jury trial, freedom from double jeopardy, the right to choose not to testify against onesself (this is called “pleading the fifth”), the right to not be denied life, liberty or property without due process of law and the right to not have property taken for public use without compensation; the right to a speedy trial by an impartial jury, the right to be informed of the accusation, to be confronted by the witnesses against him, to have counsel (a lawyer), and to have the opportunity to find witnesses in his favor; right to a trial by jury in civil cases in the federal court (though this type of case is no longer heard in the federal court system); freedom from excessive bail, excessive fines and cruel and unusual punishment; the retaining of other civil rights not listed in the Constitution; and the rights of states and the people to powers not specifically delegated to the federal government and also not prohibited by it to the states.

The system of checks and balances: The ability of each branch of government to limit the actions of the other branches so that no single branch holds too much power or is able to take control of the others. The executive branch is able to veto legislation created by the legislative branch, a decision the legislature can overturn by a 2/3 majority; the legislative branch is able to confirm or reject the executive branch’s nominees and can even remove the president from office in exceptional circumstances; and the judicial branch can overturn laws created by the legislative branch.

State government: The level of government that oversees the state and is subject to federal laws and limitations. These governments consist of the same three branches as does the federal government: executive, legislative, and judicial. Also like the federal government, they have their own constitutions, legislatures, court systems and codes of laws that can differ from each other. State constitutions can be amended when both the legislature and the citizens vote for the amendment. States are prohibited from forming alliances with foreign governments; declaring war; coining money, and imposing duties on imports or exports. Funding for state budgets comes from income taxes, sales taxes, excise taxes, corporate income taxes, lotteries, business license fees and more.

County: A subdivision of a state. In some states, counties have their own governments, while in others, they are merely geographical splits and the towns and cities provide the government of them

The executive branch: The branch of government tasked with enforcing laws. It is made up of the president, the vice president, and the Cabinet members. It oversees many government agencies, such as the Forest Service and the drug Enforcement Agency, that support its work.

The legislative branch: The branch of government tasked with making laws. It has two parts: the Senate and the House of Representatives. In addition to making laws, it confirms or rejects the executive branch’s nominations for various agencies and the Supreme Court; declares war; collects taxes; borrows money; and revises and approves the annual budget. It includes many government agencies, such as the Library of Congress, as well.

The judicial branch: The branch of government made up of the Supreme Court and all other federal courts, which is tasked with interpreting and applying federal law

The Congress: The name of the combined Senate and House of Representatives

The Senate: The part of the Congress that is made up of 100 elected officials, two from each state, who are called senators. Senators serve six-year terms.

The House of Representatives: The part of the Congress that is made up of 435 elected officials who are called representatives or Congresspersons. Each state elects a different number of Congresspersons based on its population. Congresspersons serve two-year terms.

The Supreme Court: The highest judicial body in the U.S., which is made up of nine justices (judges) who are nominated by the president and approved by the Senate by a simple majority. All nine hear and vote on each case, and the majority opinion is the decision. Justices write opinions to explain their decisions, but dissenting opinions can also be written. The justices hear federal court cases that have been appealed after being heard by lower federal courts. They also hear some state cases that deal with federal law. They hear a few cases orally and review others on paper.

The president: The member of the executive branch tasked with serving as head of state, director of foreign policy, and commander-in-chief of the U.S. military. They sign the budget and other bills into law and can veto bills Congress decides on. The president serves a four-year term and can be elected no more than twice.

The vice president: The member of the executive branch tasked with supporting the president; serving as the presiding officer of the Senate; and assuming the presidency when and if the president is unable to carry out their duties. The vice president serves a four-year term and can be elected no more than twice.

The Cabinet: The president’s advisors, who include the vice president, heads of executive departments (such as the Secretary of State, the Secretary of Defense, and the Secretary of the Treasury) and other high-ranking government officials who are nominated by the president and approved by the Senate. Each Each advises the president in their area of expertise.

Joint Chiefs of Staff: A group of high-ranking military leaders who advise the president and the Secretary of Defense on military matters

The National Security Council (NSC): A collection of security policy experts, including heads of various government agencies such as the Secretary of State, the Secretary of Defense, and the Director of National Intelligence, who advise the president and the Joint Chiefs of Staff on national security issues

The Secretary of State: On the federal level, the head of the U.S. Department of State who is responsible for conducting U.S. foreign policy and managing diplomatic relations with other countries. On the state level, they are the official who maintains and oversees public records and documents, such as corporate filings, election results, official state archives and more. In some states, they are also responsible for managing state-level elections; regulating business activities; overseeing professional licensing; and more.

Governor: The chief executive of the state government. They appoint individuals to various state agencies, boards, and commissions; create and propose the state budget; enforce state laws; manage state agencies; grant pardons and reprieves; serve as commander-in-chief of the state’s National Guard; and veto bills passed by the state legislature (which can be overridden by more than a simple majority). Some also have the power of a line-item veto.

Attorney General: The chief legal official of a state or jurisdiction, who is responsible for representing the government in all court cases as well as providing legal counsel to other government agencies

Auditor: The independent official responsible for ensuring that government funds are spent legally and properly by reviewing documents and the like

Treasurer: The official who is responsible for managing the financial assets and liabilities of a state, municipality, or other government entity. They invest funds, manage cash flow, pay out funds for government expenditures and more.

Superintendent of Public Instruction: The highest-ranking education official on the state level, who is responsible for overseeing the state’s public education system by creating programs, ensuring schools are meeting state and federal standards and more

Mayor: The highest elected official of a town or city. They are usually responsible for managing the city’s budget, making policy decisions, and overseeing the city’s operations.

Republican: A member of the Republican Party, one of the two major U.S. political parties, which values smaller government, lower taxes, a more laissez-faire economy and more freedom from government intervention

Democrat: A member of the Democratic Party, one of the two major U.S. political parties, which values social justice, higher taxes for the wealthy, greater government intervention in business and economic processes and a more robust welfare system

Independent: Individuals who do not belong to or identify with any political party

Third party: Any of many U.S. political parties other than the Democratic or Republican parties. Two examples are the Green Party and the Libertarian Party.

Bill: A proposed law, which is proposed by a representative, sponsored by another representative, and introduced to the House of Representatives. It goes to the proper committee, where changes can be made. After approval by the committee, it is reported to the House floor, debated, and voted on. It is then referred to the Senate, where it goes through a similar process. Finally, it is sent to the President, who either passes or vetoes the bill. If vetoed, it can still become law if both houses pass it with a two-thirds majority.

Petition: A formal request for a legislative action, usually for an initiative to be placed on the ballot for direct vote or for a referendum to be proposed and voted on by the legislature. They are often made by a citizen or group of citizens and usually require a certain number of signatures that varies by issue and location.

Initiative: A bill that is drafted by, proposed by and voted on by citizens, bypassing the legislature

Referendum: A bill that is drafted by the legislature, proposed by either the legislature or by citizens, and voted on by the citizens and that may or may not be binding

Recall: The removal of elected officials from office through a citizen vote

Line-item veto: The power of an executive governmental authority to reject specific provisions of a bill without vetoing the entire bill

General election: The final election in which voters choose from among the candidates nominated by each political party, as well as any independent candidates who have qualified to be on the ballot. To be eligible for public office at the federal level, a candidate must be a resident of their state for a certain number of years, and a presidential candidate must be a natural-born U.S. citizen. Congresspeople must be at least 25 years old, while senators must be at least 30 years old and presidents and vice presidents must be at least 35 years old. Additional requirements apply to state and local public offices.

Primary election: An election prior to the general election in which voters select the candidates who will be named on each party’s ticket. In an open primary, voters do not have to be registered with a political party to vote in that party’s primary. They can choose which party’s primary to vote in on the day of the election. In a closed primary, only voters who are registered members of a particular political party can vote in that party’s primary election.

Midterm election: An election that takes place halfway through the president’s term, in which Congresspersons and some Senators are elected and in which turnout is typically lower than in presidential election years

Presidential primary: A primary election in which presidential candidates for the major parties are chosen. Winners go on to compete in the national party conventions, where the party officially nominates their candidate.

Electoral College: A group of electors from every state called that cast the official votes for the president and vice president. They usually vote according to the popular vote. The number of electors in each state is equal to its number of representatives in both houses of Congress. The candidate who wins a majority of the electoral votes (270 out of 538) becomes the president, and the president and vice president are voted on together.

Office-block ballot: A ballot that groups candidates by office name

Party-column ballot: A ballot that groups candidate by party affiliation

Split-ticket ballot: A ballot that allows for voting for candidates of different parties in the same election

Straight-ticket ballot: A ballot that only allows for voting for candidates who are all of the same party

The federal budget: A detailed spending plan for the following fiscal year that is decided on by the Congress. The money for it comes from taxes (from individuals and businesses); loans from other countries (savings bonds, notes and Treasury bills that are sold); social security payments; and miscellaneous other sources, such as fines and licenses. It outlines spending for lawfully protected agencies (such as Medicare, Social Security, Medicaid); interest on the national debt; discretionary agencies and programs (those Congress is not required by law to support but votes to support in that year’s budget); and national defense. The process of creating it is as follows: the president creates a budget; it is reviewed by Congress, who holds hearings on it; committees and subcommittees make revisions to it; Congress passes it; and the President signs it into law.

Appropriation bills: The twelve bills that Congress proposes and attaches to the federal budget that contain all of the discretionary spending for non-mandatory programs like Social Security and Medicare

Filibuster: A technique used by Senators to prevent the voting on of a bill, even if the bill has a majority approval

The Pledge of Allegiance: A statement made while standing at attention and facing the flag with the right hand over the heart that is meant to show loyalty to the nation. It is as follows: “I pledge allegiance to the flag of the United States of America, and to the republic for which it stands, one nation under God, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all.”

The flag’s symbolism: The flag represents the shared values and history of the American people, including the values of liberty, democracy and patriotism. The thirteen red and white stripes represent the thirteen original colonies, while the fifty white stars represent the fifty states. The red color represents valor and bravery. The white color represents purity and innocence, and the blue color represents vigilance, perseverance and justice.

Rules for flag flying: The flag shouldn’t be flown in inclement weather unless it’s an all-weather flag; when displayed at night, the flag should be properly illuminated; at certain times, as in a time of national mourning, the flag should be hung at half-mast; the flag should not be flown upside down unless as a signal of distress; when flown with another flag, it should be placed to your left when crossed; when stored, flag should be folded into a triangle with the union (blue section) visible; if damaged, the flag should be disposed of with dignity, usually by burning; the flag should not touch anything below it or rest on the ground; and the flag should never be used for advertising purposes or as a decoration

Major U.S. welfare programs: Social security; medicare and medicaid; supplemental security income (SSI) (aid to elderly and disabled people who do not qualify for social security benefits); food stamps; the earned income tax credit (EITC); public/subsidized housing; rent vouchers; unemployment benefits

Before you debate, learn your stuff. Here are some of the terms you need to know in order to do your civic duties well.

Note that some political terms are not mutually exclusive; for example, the U.S. can be described as a democracy, a republic, a capitalist country or a federation. Also keep in mind that there is a great deal of flexibility and variation in many of these terms. Use these definitions as generalizations to aid in your understanding, not as a definitive description.

Find U.S. elected officials on usa.gov/elected-officials.

ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE: POLITICAL SCIENCE

Politics: The complicated, multi-part process of choosing laws and lawmakers and carrying out other duties of political office

Government: A state-run institution that is tasked with maintaining order, protecting citizens, and promoting the general welfare of society by making and enforces laws and carrying out many other specified services, such as education and infrastructure building and maintenance

Political science: The study of political history, processes, people and ideas

Political party: A named group that shares political preferences and seeks to have their representatives elected

Suffrage: The right and ability to vote in an election

Political power: The ability to control or influence politics

Political legitimacy: The acceptance of a governing authority by its citizens

Political authority: The ability of a governing authority to govern without the use of force

Sovereignty: The right of a state to govern itself without external interference. In some cases, this right may be limited by international law, treaties and other considerations.

Political ideology: A set of beliefs about the right, practical and preferable function, structure and powers of government

Party identification: Loyalty to a political party, whether or not one is an official member of that party

Democracy: A political system in which citizens have the right and ability to vote for their laws and governmental leaders, either directly or through elected representatives

Monarchy: A form of government that is led by a supreme leader whose powers vary by state. In a constitutional monarchy, the monarch is limited and guided by a constitution, the foundational law of the land. An emirate is a form of monarchy ruled by an emir (the ruler of a Muslim state). A sultanate is ruled by a sultan.

Oligarchy: A form of government that is led by a small group of individuals, usually wealthy and well-connected ones

Dictatorship: A form of government in which a single ruler has absolute power. In most cases, leaders of this type of government create a legal framework that justifies their actions.

Constitutional democracy: A democracy in which the rights and powers of the people are described in a constitution, which is the foundational law of the land

Republic: A form of government in which the people elect representative leaders to carry out their goals

Democratic republic: A type of republic in which the representatives are elected through a democratic process

Presidential government: A republic with a separate executive branch from the legislative branch that is led by a president

Parliamentary government: A form of government in which the executive branch, including main leader and an advisory cabinet, is chosen by a legislature or parliament. The leader is called a prime minister or a chancellor. This branch can be dissolved by the parliament and can in turn dissolve the parliament.

Federation: A form of government in which a group of individual states or provinces are united under a central government with limited powers

Confederacy: A looser form of government in which the member states or provinces retain almost all of their sovereignty and autonomy, with the central government having very limited powers

Confederation: A general term that can refer to any political association in which several states or provinces join together for a common purpose

Theocracy: A form of government in which a deity or religion, as interpreted by religious professionals, is supreme

Feudalism: A hierarchical political and social system that dominated Europe and Japan during the Middle Ages in which peasants worked for and were loyal to knights, knights worked for and were loyal to lords and lords worked for and were loyal to kings. Territory disputes were common due to political instability.

English colony: A territory or region that was controlled and governed by the British Empire, with varying degrees of autonomy and self-government

U.S. protectorate: A state or territory that is under the protection and influence of the United States, but is not fully incorporated as a part of the United States and has some degree of autonomy and self-government

Tribal nation: A sovereign yet dependent nation that must follow federal law but not all state laws

Non-government organization (NGO): A private, non-profit entity that works towards social, environmental, or humanitarian goals, often independent of government

Regime: Any particular government that is in power at a particular time. The word usually carries negative connotations.

The political spectrum: A way of organizing political ideologies according to the amount of government control and, conversely, the amount of individual freedom they espouse. Commonly, though not always, it is viewed as a straight line, giving rise to the “left-right” terminology. It is as follows, starting at the right: anarchy; libertarian capitalism; conservative capitalism; progressive liberal capitalism; socialism; and communism. Fascism/totalitarianism is often considered to be a far-right ideology, though it is more similar to communism.

Liberalism: In the U.S., a political ideology promoting social and economic reform, higher taxes and greater governmental power. It is associated with the Democratic Party. An economic liberal espouses only or mainly the ideology’s economic ideas, and a social liberal espouses only or mainly the ideology’s social values. In Europe, the term is used differently, signifying an ideology closer to what Americans call conservativism, and the word progressivism is used to describe what Americans call liberalism.

Conservatism: A political ideology promoting free markets, restricted government, efficient use of government resources and traditional social values. In the U.S., it is associated with the Republican Party. An economic conservative espouses only or mainly the ideology’s economic ideas, and a social conservative espouses only or mainly the ideology’s social values.

Capitalism: A political system or ideology based on private ownership, free-market competition and the profit motive

Socialism: A political system or ideology in which democratically elected leaders attempt to fairly redistribute wealth; eliminate or greatly reduce economic inequality; provide universal access to essential goods and services such as healthcare and education; and give workers greater control over the means of production

Communism: A political system or ideology in which private ownership of property, businesses and capital is banned and the state, usually run by a small group of leaders, controls everything. The state claims that all people share ownership of all resources, though in practice, it owns everything. Leaders are not elected democratically.

Libertarianism: A political system or ideology that seeks to maximize the freedom of the individual and minimize the size and powers of the government

Anarchy: A political system or ideology that seeks to abolish hierarchical forms of government in favor of cooperative systems

Totalitarianism: A political system or ideology in which state authority is total and often brutally enforced

Fascism: A form of totalitarianism that existed in several nations during World War II that was characterized by extreme militarism and nationalism

Nazism: National Socialism, the form of fascism that existed in Germany prior to and during World War II after the Nazi Party came into power

Marxism: A form of communism devised by Karl Marx in the late nineteenth century that he claimed would free the proletariat (workers) from exploitation by capitalists (business owners), resulting in a socialist system and classless society in which the means of production are owned collectively by the workers

Welfare capitalism: A form of capitalism in which a free-market economy is combined with an extensive social welfare system, including universal health care, education and more

State capitalism: A form of capitalism in which the government controls or heavily influences the economy, often through state-owned enterprises or by providing subsidies to certain industries

Laissez-faire capitalism: A form of capitalism in which the government exercises minimal control of the economy

Nationalism: A political ideology that holds that a nation should be fully sovereign and that citizens should be loyal to their nation above all else

Isolationism: A political ideology that holds that a nation should practice non-intervention or low intervention in international affairs

Egalitarianism: A belief in the inherent and rightful political, social and economic equality of all people

Political corruption: The use of entrusted powers by government officials for private gain. This includes extortion, cronyism, nepotism, patronage, graft, pork barreling, embezzlement and more.

Extortion: Obtaining or attempting to obtain something through force or threats

Bribery: Obtaining or attempting to obtain something through a monetary payment

Graft: The illegal use of public monies for private gain. It can take many forms, including embezzlement, bribery, granting lucrative contracts to associates who offer monetary kickbacks and more.

Embezzlement: Theft or misappropriation of public or institutional money or property for private use

Cronyism: The favoring of friends for political office or other benefits

Nepotism: The favoring family members for political office or other benefits

Patronage: The practice of giving government jobs or contracts to people as a reward for their political support

Pork barreling: The use of power and position to secure funding for local projects that may not be necessary or cost-effective in order to gain political support from constituents. This is frequently done by adding riders to bills and exchanging political favors.

Rider: An addition to a law that might or might not have any connection to the issue the law addresses, added to gain favor with the representatives who benefit from it

Conflict of interest: An ethically problematic situation in which a person has two different responsibilities that might have conflicting goals, resulting in difficult choices on the part of that person. An example of this is a state representative who is also a member of the board of a large company, such as a drug manufacturer, who might pressure the representative to pass legislation that is amenable to their cause.

Gerrymandering: Manipulating the boundaries of an electoral district in order to give one political party an advantage over another. This can be done by either packing opposition voters into a single district (thus wasting their votes) or spreading them across multiple districts (thus diluting their power).

Lobbying: The attempt by individuals and large organizations to influence lawmakers in their policy decisions through a variety of techniques such as persuasion, information, material incentives, economic leverage, disruption, entertainment and litigation. Professional lobbyists work for large corporations. They sometimes get only two or three minutes of an official’s time to make their case. Former government officials often become lobbyists and earn a high salary as such.

Soft money: Unregulated and sometimes unlimited donations given to political organizations rather than directly to candidates in order to avoid contribution limits. It was outlawed for federal elections but loopholes are constantly being sought.

Partisan journalism: Journalism that is clearly biased in favor of a political party or ideology

Yellow journalism: Journalism that relies on sensationalism, exaggeration, and often unethical practices to attract its audience

Interest group: An organization that advocates for the political interests of a specific group of people, such as a business, a labor union or an environmentalist group. They aren’t allowed to endorse candidates, but they are allowed to contribute to political campaigns through PACs.

Political action committee (PAC): An organization that advocates for a special interest group by making financial contributions to political campaigns, writing legislation, and more

Super PAC: A type of PAC that can raise and spend unlimited amounts of money to support or oppose candidates, as long as they do not coordinate directly with the candidate’s campaign

Grassroots activism: The process of mobilizing large numbers of people to achieve shared goals through techniques such as letter writing campaigns, rallies and marches, petitions, initiatives, lobbying, advertising, local meeting attendance, campaigning, writing policy education materials and more

Economic issues: Political questions that concern the production, distribution, and consumption of goods, capital and services in a society. These include questions surrounding taxation, government spending, government regulation, trade and more.

Social issues: Political questions that concern matters of social justice, equality, equity and government-supplied benefits to the public. These include questions surrounding abortion, affirmative action, animal rights, capital punishment, censorship, freedom of speech, freedom of the press, Internet taxation, climate change, disarmament and nonproliferation, drugs, imprisonment, education, foreign aid, gay rights, gun rights, health care, immigration, lobbying, nuclear testing, political corruption, race relations, separation of church and state, space policy, welfare and more.

Foreign policy: A country’s strategies and measures regarding international issues, including issues of diplomacy, foreign aid, trade agreements, military force, political alliances, global human rights, nuclear proliferation, environmental concerns, terrorism and more

Public policy: A country’s strategies and measures regarding issues that concern the general policy, including welfare, national security, the environment and much more

Constituents: Voters and other citizens who are represented by elected political leaders

Bureaucracy: A large and complex organization that is typically hierarchical in structure, with specialized roles and procedures for decision-making and implementation

Political machine: A political organization that attempts to control a government through manipulation of elections, patronage and more

Grant: A financial award given by a government agency or private organization to a special program in response to their written grant proposal

Citizen legislation: Legislation that is initiated and voted on by citizens rather than by legislators

National debt: The total amount of money that a country’s government owes to its creditors, which can include both domestic and foreign investors, as well as other countries

Colonization: The takeover of a nation or people by a foreign nation, usually by force

The British Conservative Party: One of the two main political policies in the U.K., which advocates for free-market economic policies and conservative social values

The British Labour Party: One of the two main political parties in the U.K., which advocates for progressive values such as universal healthcare, affordable housing, and workers’ rights

Sociology is the subject you learned without realizing you learned it. This is because as one wends their way through discussions of news, politics, culture and more, the following terms are encountered many, many times. Consider this list a refresher.

ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE: SOCIOLOGY

Sociology: The study of human social life, including the study of class structures; political structures; inequalities; culture; institutions; relationships; group dynamics and more

Socialization: The ongoing process by which individuals learn social norms, including family-led primary socialization as well as secondary socialization from others

Society: A collection of people who share space and culture

Culture: The shared features of a group that might include values, language, food and much more

Subculture: A group that promotes values and activities that are different from and sometimes contrary to those of the dominant culture

Group: Two or more people who interact regularly, have a sense of belonging and have their own chosen norms

Aggregate: A collection of people who happen to be at the same place at the same time

Network: A series of loosely held social ties that can be important sources of information, contacts, and assistance for its members

Nuclear family: One or two primary caregivers and their children

Primary group: A group that has emotional intimacy, a great sense of belonging and meets frequently, such as a family

Secondary group: A group that is more formal and less personal than a primary group but still meets regularly, such as a workplace or neighborhood group

Reference group: A group people compare themselves with for purposes of self-evaluation

Group dynamics: The ways in which an individual’s thoughts and behaviors are influenced by their groups

Role: A set of behavioral norms and expectations

Value: A culturally and personally determined belief about what is right or wrong, desirable or undesirable

Ideology: A set of values on which people base their religious ideas, political beliefs, behavioral choices and more

More: A socially constructed guideline for behavior

Sanction: A socially constructed expression of approval or disapproval

Peer pressure: The social pressure applied by groups, often unintentionally, to encourage conformity

Social control: The ways a society encourages conformity to norms

Deviance: The violation of a norm

Stigma: A trait or characteristic people possess that causes them to lose social status

Taboo: A strongly held social norm

Social alienation: The rejection or incomplete integration of a person into a community

Groupthink: The tendency of people to follow the majority opinions of the group, leading to narrow, uncreative views and solutions

Social construction: A viewpoint created by a group

Social status: A person’s social rank in a particular setting

Status symbol: An outward manifestations of prestige, such as expensive clothing

Social capital: The non-monetary resources available to a person that stem from their human interaction, including information, opportunities, power and influence, liking, reputation, cooperation and more

Assimilation: The process whereby members of a group give up parts of their own culture in order to blend in to a new culture

Social integration: The degree to which an individual feels connected to the other people in his or her group or community

Resocialization: The learning of new norms and values that occurs when life circumstances change dramatically

Master status: The main trait or status that a person is known by, such as their occupation (i.e. stay-at-home mom)

Industrial society: A society that uses advanced sources of energy, rather than humans and animals, to run large machinery

Postindustrial society: A society that features an economy based on services and technology, not production

Developing nations: Countries that are in the process of becoming industrialized

First-world, second-world and third-world nations: An outmoded and offensive classification of countries according to their level of modernization, infrastructure and wealth

Socioeconomic status (SES): A calculation of one’s education, income, occupation and possibly ethnicity and gender that results in a nonscientific social categorization

Class warfare: The political tension and economic inequalities that exist between social classes

Social mobility: Movement up or down within the social hierarchy

Caste system: A social system based on ascribed statuses, traits or characteristics that people possess at birth

Class system: A social system based partly or largely on achieved statuses, traits or characteristics that are earned and chosen

Elite: A small group of powerful people who hold a disproportionate amount of wealth, privilege, political power, or skill in a society

Power elite: A small group of the most wealthy, powerful, and influential people in business, government, and the military that are thought to run a society

Nobility: The highest stratum of the estate system of stratification whose members had significant inherited wealth

Nouveau riche: The class of people whose wealth has been around only for a generation or two. The name comes from the Latin phrase for “new money.”

Bourgeoisie: In Marxist theory, the class of people who own the industrial means of production, to whom the working class sells their services

Proletariat: In Marxist theory, the working class people

Poverty level: An estimate set by the federal government of the minimum income that a family needs to survive

Gentrification: The changes that occur when wealthier residents and businesses move into a neighborhood or area in large numbers, including loss of unique local qualities; appropriation of unique qualities; and the pricing out of current residents

Race: A set of shared physical characteristics loosely based on place of origin

Ethnicity: A set of shared cultural characteristics, including nationality, language, religion, and traditions

Stereotype: An assumption people make about a person or a group, often on the basis of incorrect or incomplete information

Racial prejudice: The unavoidable mental associations and generalizations every person retains concerning race

Racial discrimination: A statement or act that seeks to remove power or dignity from a person of color

Racism: The systemic, institutionalized discrimination and prejudice that pervades every level of society, including workplaces, governments, the criminal justice system and many more

White supremacy: The assumed intellectual, cultural and moral superiority of white people, as opposed to people of color. The term was first used to refer to white people who worked for racial segregation and the oppression of people of color, but is now widely used to refer to the innumerable cultural messages that permeate Western society.

White privilege: The sum total of the many small and large benefits of being white

White fragility: The defensiveness displayed by many white people during discussions about race, which might lead them to provide overly simplistic solutions, dramatize their own suffering, display anger, avoid discussion, shut down discussion/change topic or focus, seek white solidarity and more

Multiculturalism: The existence and fair-minded acceptance of multiple cultural heritages living side by side

Pluralistic society: A society composed of many different races, ethnicities and cultures

Ethnocentrism: The tendency to judge another culture by the standards of one’s own culture

Microaggression: A statement or act that betrays a person’s racial prejudice and in some way diminishes a person of color but does not overtly discriminate against them. An example is a careless statement about a person’s hair texture or not looking at a person of color when talking to a group.

Institutionalized racism: The ways in which systems of society, such as the education, employment, criminal justice and healthcare systems, reinforce racial inequality and discrimination

The prison industrial complex: The network of private and government-run organizations that profit from mass incarceration

Mass incarceration: The legally sanctioned imprisonment of several million people in the United States, many of whom are people of color, and many of whom are required to provide very low-cost to free labor to U.S. corporations working through contracts with the prison system

The New Jim Crow: The modern system for denying numerous civil and other rights to people of color in the United States, particularly, but not limited to, people previously convicted of felony crimes. It includes laws which allow for unconstitutional acts, such as search and seizure without cause, racial profiling, targeted policing, cruel and unusual punishment, unfair trials and others; laws and other practices that deny people with felony records access to job opportunities, business licenses, gun licenses, housing, food assistance, insurance, loans, educational assistance and more; laws that deny people with felony records the right to vote, serve on a jury or perform other civic duties; and more.

Contact hypothesis: A hypothesis stating that prejudice declines when people in an in-group become more familiar with the customs, norms, food, music, and attitudes of people in an out-group

Disenfranchisement: The revocation of a person’s rights, including their right to vote

The Other: A person or group of people thought to be different, even alien, by another person or group

Gender socialization: The tendency for boys and girls to be socialized differently

Sex: One’s anatomical gender

Gender: One’s felt or experienced gender

Cisgender: The quality of having the same anatomical and experienced gender

Transgender: The quality of having an experienced gender different from one’s anatomical gender

Transsexual: A person who has had gender reassignment surgery

Non-binary gender: An umbrella term for genders that fall somewhere in the middle of the gender spectrum and are neither strictly male or female

Queer theory: A field of critical theory that interprets literature, culture and history through the lens of non-binary gender issues

Patriarchy: A society in which men hold most of the power, including political, moral, financial and social power, and places of leadership

Auguste Comte: The founder of sociology as a scientific pursuit who argued that industrialization was to blame for class struggle

Karl Marx: An early sociologist who theorized that capitalism was the cause of class struggle and who argued that sociology should include not just facts, but social critique

Human rights: Rights many believe all people are entitled to, such as freedom of religion, speech and education

Institution: A set of norms surrounding the carrying out of a function necessary for the survival of a society

Bureaucracy: An institution with a hierarchy of rigid, rule-bound officials

Neocolonialism: A theory concerning the tendency of the most industrialized nations to exploit less developed countries politically and economically

Hegemony: The political, economic, or military predominance or control of one state over others

Cultural relativism: The theory that in order to understand the traits of another culture, one must study them within the context of that culture

Secularization: The transformation of a society from close identification with religious values and institutions toward nonreligious values and secular institutions

Urbanization: The process by which a large percentage of a population migrates toward urban centers

White-collar crime: Nonviolent crime committed by middle class professionals, often in the context of the workplace

Victimless crime: Crimes in which laws are violated but that lack an identifiable victim

Recidivism: The tendency of convicted criminals to repeat offenses

Consumerism: The acquisition of goods and services in ever-increasing amounts

Conspicuous consumption: The acquiring of luxury goods and services with the goal of public display

Meritocracy: A system in which positions are given according to individual merit

The American Dream: The idea that all people, regardless of the conditions into which they were born and their current social economic status, should have the chance to succeed

Social Darwinism: The late-nineteenth century theory that stronger people increase in wealth and power while weaker people decrease in the same

Primogeniture: A law stipulating that only a first-born son could inherit his father’s wealth

Math thinking grows the brain. Avoid taking the easy way out when encountering simple math problems in daily life. On paper or in your head, convert measurements, add and subtract large numbers, calculate costs per unit, find averages and percentages and more when opportunities arise. It gets easier, and saves time (and sometimes money) in the long run.

ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE: ARITHMETIC AND MEASUREMENT

Equation: A mathematical statement that shows the relationship between two expressions, separated by an equal sign

Operation: A mathematical process that takes one or two numbers as inputs and produces a number as an output, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, or division

Multiplication: The process of finding the product of two factors

Division: The process of finding an unknown factor

Whole number: A number with no fractional part

Integer: A whole number, either positive or negative

Negative number: A number that is less than zero

Positive number: A number that is more than zero

Absolute value: A number’s distance from zero, whether negative or positive

Place value: The position of a number within a larger number, which is what determines that number’s value. For example, the two in the number .12 is in the hundreds place, while the one is in the tens place.

Inequality: A mathematical expression that contains an inequality symbol

Numerator: The top number in a fraction that represents the number of parts being considered

Denominator: The bottom number in a fraction that represents the total number of equal parts in a whole

Remainder: The number left over after division has taken place. This occurs when the numerator cannot be equally divided by the denominator.

Factor: A number that divides another number, leaving no remainder. For example, 3 and 4 are factors of 12.

Greatest common factor: The largest factor that all the numbers being worked with share. For example, 12 and 16 share a factor of 4.

Product: The result of multiplying two numbers

Multiple: A number that can be divided by another number without a remainder. For example, 10 and 15 are multiples of 5.

Least common multiple: The smallest multiple that is divisible by all the numbers being worked with. For example, 4 is the least common multiple of 2 and 4 is 4 because the multiples of 2 are 2, 4, 6, 8, etc. and the multiples of 4 are 4, 6, 8, 10, etc.

Lowest terms: A fraction that has been simplified to its smallest possible form, where the numerator and denominator have no common factors greater than one. For example, 12/16ths in lowest terms is 3/4ths.

Improper fraction: A fraction in which the numerator is greater than or equal to the denominator; for example, 11/5

Mixed fraction: A fraction that combines a whole number and a proper fraction; for example, 3 1/3

Like fractions: Fractions that share the same denominator; for example, 3/4 and 1/4

Equivalent fractions: Fractions that represent the same quantity or value, but may have different numerators and denominators; for example, 2/4 and 1/2

Array: An arrangement of objects, pictures, or numbers in rows and columns. These can be used to illustrate multiplication and division problems. For example, the math problem 3 x 4 could be shown by creating three rows of four dots.

Set: Any collection of elements, whether they are numbers, objects or something else. It contains only one of each type of element, however.

Sequence: An enumerated collection of objects in which repetitions are allowed and order matters

Bar graph: A chart that uses bars to represent data

Line graph: A chart that uses lines, usually on a graph featuring an x-axis and a y-axis, to represent data

Table: A chart that organizes numbers into columns. Tables often show the various results of a calculation as it is affected by one or more variables.

Pie chart: A chart that organizes percentage values in a single circle that is segmented like a cut pie

Venn diagram: A diagram that displays intersecting and various-sized circles to represent the interrelationships between data sets

One million: 1,000,000

One billion: 1,000,000,000

One trillion: 1,000,000,000,000

Roman numerals 1-9: I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX

Roman numerals 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80 and 90: X, XX, XXX, XL, L, LX, LXX, LXXX, XC

Roman numerals 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900: C, CC, CCC, CD, D, DC, DCC, DCCC, CM

Roman numerals 1000, 2000, and 3000: M, MM, MMM

Metric system of measurement: The worldwide standard measurement system, which is based on multiples of 10, and includes meters and grams

English system of measurement: A system of measurement used primarily in the United States that includes units such as inches, feet, miles, and pounds

Kelvin: A temperature scale used in scientific measurements where 0 degrees represents absolute zero, the lowest possible temperature. 1 degree Kelvin is the same as 1 degree Celsius, but the 0 point (starting point) is different.

Celsius: A temperature scale where the freezing point of water is 0 degrees and the boiling point of water is 100 degrees, commonly used in most countries worldwide

Fahrenheit: A temperature scale where the freezing point of water is 32 degrees and the boiling point of water is 212 degrees, commonly used in the United States

Centigrade: A older name for Celsius

The number of millimeters in a meter: 1000

The number of centimeters in a meter: 100

The number of meters in a kilometer: 1000

The number of milligrams in a gram: 1000

The number of grams in a kilogram: 1000

The number of kilograms in a metric ton: 1000

The number of inches in a foot: 12

The number of feet in a yard: 3

The number of yards in a mile: 1760

The number of ounces in a pound: 16

The number of pounds in a ton: 2000

The number of teaspoons in a tablespoon: 3

The number of fluid ounces in a cup: 8

The number of cups in a pint: 2

The number of pints in a quart: 2

The number of quarts in a gallon: 4

The number of milliliters in a liter: 1000

The number of days in a year: 365

How to convert Celsius to Fahrenheit: C = (F – 32) X 5/9 and F = (C X 9/5) + 32

The freezing point in Celsius: 0 degrees

The freezing point in Fahrenheit: 32 degrees

The boiling point in Celsius: 100 degrees

The boiling point in Fahrenheit: 212 degrees